Programming Language Cheat Sheets: General

Strings Mathematics [True/False] Operators and Symbols [ternary operator] General (Control Flow/Debugging) Dates Objects [Type/TypeFull] New Features Timelines Sections (Single-Line Examples): Core Functions (e.g. print, noop, swap, version/OS version, sleep/set timer, assert) Error Handling (try/catch/finally, throw) Loops Keywords / Constants Function/Class Definitions Assign/Declare Single Variables Assign/Declare Multiple Variables File Extensions/Artwork Concatenate Strings/Integers The Universal Function Library Project: Details Sections (Multi-Line Examples): Multi-Line Strings Sleep/Tick Counts (benchmark tests) Function Examples: Add/Sum Function Examples: FillParamVar/FillParamFixed Class Examples: Full Class Examples: Rectangle Class Examples: Access Modifiers (public/private/protected) (child class) Note: UFL: Universal Function Library, a set of around 100-300 standard functions for all programming languages. Languages do not have to implement anything exactly to the UFL specification, it is a guide. See lower down for further details. Section: Core Functions UFL: Swap [consider 'Swap(&a, &b)' or 'Swap(a, b)' or a swap statement 'swap a b'][destructuring assignment is unclear when longer variable names are used] AutoHotkey: ___ C++: swap [e.g. std::swap(a, b)] C#: ___ [can use: (a, b) = (b, a)] [note: destructuring assignment] Crystal: ___ [can use: a, b = b, a] [note: destructuring assignment] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ [can use: a, b = b, a] [note: destructuring assignment] Java: ___ JavaScript: ___ [can use: [a, b] = [b, a]] [note: destructuring assignment] Kotlin: ___ PHP: ___ [can use: [$a, $b] = [$b, $a]] [also: list($a, $b) = [$b, $a]] [note: destructuring assignment] Python: ___ [can use: a, b = b, a] [note: destructuring assignment] R: ___ Ruby: ___ [can use: a, b = b, a] [note: destructuring assignment] Rust: ___ [can use: (a, b) = (b, a)] [note: destructuring assignment] Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: swap [e.g. swap(&a, &b)] [also: (a, b) = (b, a)] [note: destructuring assignment] UFL: Noop ['no operation', a function that does nothing] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: {}] [note: in some contexts this creates an object] C++: ___ [can use: ;] C#: ___ [can use: ;] Crystal: ___ [can use: nil] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: ___ [can use: ;] JavaScript: ___ [can use: {} (typically with no semicolon)] [note: in some contexts this creates an object] Kotlin: ___ PHP: ___ [can use: ;] Python: ___ [can use: pass] R: ___ Ruby: ___ [can use: nil] Rust: ___ [can use: {} (typically with no semicolon)] Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: SELECT 0 WHERE 0] Swift: ___ UFL: PrintWithNewLine [or PrintLn][print string and a newline character][mention if null/true/false/-0.0/0.0 are printed in an ambiguous or unusual way] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: OutputDebug/MsgBox/ToolTip/TrayTip] [note: true/false are (equal to and) printed as 1/0 respectively] C++: std::println(vVar) [also: std::printf(vVar)] [note: std::println (C++23)] [also: std::cout << vVar << "\n"] [also: std::cout << vVar << std::endl] [note: true/false are (equal to and) printed as 1/0 respectively] [note: -0.0/0.0 are printed as -0/0 respectively] C#: Console.WriteLine(vVar) [WARNING: null/true/false/-0.0/0.0 are printed as (blank string)/True/False/-0/0 respectively] [WARNING: before C# 9 (.NET 5), -0.0 was printed as 0] Crystal: p vVar [also: puts vVar] [also: print vVar, "\n"] [note: p keyword/p()/puts keyword/puts()] [note: p() prints strings within quotes and escapes whitespace] [note: puts() doesn't print arrays newline-separated (unlike in Ruby)] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Debug.Print vVar [note: text is printed to the Immediate Window] [WARNING: -0#/0# (i.e. -0.0/0.0) are printed as 0/0 respectively] Go: fmt.Println(vVar) [note: nil/-0.0/0.0 are printed as <nil>/-0/0 respectively] [WARNING: vNum := -0.0 returns 0.0] [can use: vNZ := math.Copysign(0.0, -1)] Java: System.out.println(vVar) JavaScript: console.log(vVar) [also: alert(vVar)] [note: to see more console methods: console.log(console)] [note: -0.0/0.0 are printed as -0/0 respectively] [WARNING: vNum = -0 returns -0.0] Kotlin: println(vVar) PHP: var_dump($vVar) [also: echo $vVar . "\n"] [also: echo $vVar . "<br>"] [note: var_dump() always prints a line break, print_r() prints a line break for objects but not values] [note: var_export/var_dump: null is printed as NULL] [note: var_export/var_dump print strings within quotes but don't escape whitespace] [can use (print within quotes and escape whitespace): echo(json_encode($vText))] Python: print(vVar) R: print(vVar) [also: cat(vVar, "\n")] [also: (vVar)] [note: print() prints strings within quotes and escapes whitespace] [also: writeLines(vVar), noquote(vVar), paste(vVar), paste0(vVar), message(vVar), warning(vVar)] [note: print(): -0.0/0.0 are printed as -0/0 respectively] [WARNING: NULL: cat/message/warning treat NULL as a blank string, writeLines/noquote throw if they receive NULL] [note: cat/writeLines/noquote/message/warning don't print strings within quotes] [note: hide/suppress output (3 approaches): invisible(MyFunc()); sink(nullfile()); MyFunc(); sink(); vText = capture.output(MyFunc())] Ruby: p vVar [also: puts vVar] [also: print vVar, "\n"] [note: p keyword/p()/puts keyword/puts()] [WARNING: puts() prints arrays newline-separated] [note: p() prints strings within quotes and escapes whitespace] Rust: println!("{}", vVar) [WARNING: println!("{}", vNum): -0.0/0.0 are printed as -0/0 respectively, if ':?' is used, -0.0/0.0 are printed respectively] Scala: println(vVar) SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: SELECT 'my string'] [also: PRAGMA table_info(MyTable)] [also: PRAGMA table_list] [WARNING: -0.0/null are printed as 0.0/(blank string) respectively] [note: true/false are (equal to and) printed as 1/0 respectively] Swift: print(vVar) UFL: PrintWithoutNewLine [or PrintNoLn][print string without a line break (newline) character] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: OutputDebug/MsgBox/ToolTip/TrayTip] C++: std::print(vVar) [note (C++23 onwards): std::print] [also: std::cout << vVar] C#: Console.Write(vVar) Crystal: print [note: print keyword/print()] [note: print()/p()/puts() print arrays on one line (in Ruby puts() prints arrays newline-separated)] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Debug.Print vVar; [note: use a semicolon to omit the line break] [note: text is printed to the Immediate Window] [also: set active cell value: ActiveCell.Value = vValue] [also: set value of cell below active cell: ActiveCell.Offset(1, 0).Value = vValue] Go: fmt.Print(vVar) Java: System.out.print(vVar) JavaScript: ___ Kotlin: print(vVar) PHP: echo $vVar [note: echo keyword/echo()/print keyword/print()/var_export() never print a line break, print_r() prints a line break for objects but not values] [MAJOR WARNING: echo/print/print_r print true/false/null as 1/(blank string)/(blank string) respectively (var_dump()/var_export() print true/false/NULL)] Python: print(vVar, end="") R: cat [e.g. cat(vVar)] Ruby: print [note: print keyword/print()] [note: print() and p() print arrays on one line] Rust: print!("{}", vVar) Scala: print(vVar) SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: print(vVar, terminator:"") UFL: PrintNewLine [or PrintBlankLine][print a line break (newline) character]['print a blank line' (if following a line break)] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: OutputDebug/MsgBox/ToolTip/TrayTip] C++: std::cout << "\n" C#: Console.WriteLine() Crystal: puts [also: print "\n"] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Debug.Print Go: fmt.Println() Java: System.out.println() JavaScript: console.log() Kotlin: println() PHP: echo "\n" [also: print "\n"] [also: print_r("\n")] Python: print() R: cat("\n") Ruby: puts [also: print "\n"] Rust: println!() [also: println!("")] [also: println!("{}", "")] Scala: println() SQL (SQLite): SELECT '' [also: .print] Swift: print() UFL: (PrintCustom) [define a custom function/macro 'myprint' to print a string (and a line break)][all handle at least 0 and 1 params unless stated][see also: MakeFuncForEachDemoPrint] AutoHotkey: myprint := MsgBox [also (append to clipboard): myprint := (vVar:="") => A_Clipboard .= vVar "`r`n"] C++: template<typename T=char[]> void myprint(T const& vVar="") {std::cout << (vVar) << "\n";} [also (a custom macro, which doesn't handle 0 params): #define myprint(vVar) std::cout << (vVar) << "\n"] C#: public static void myprint<T>(T vVar) {Console.WriteLine(vVar);} public static void myprint() {Console.WriteLine();} [note: 1 custom function with 2 overloads] Crystal: def myprint(*oVar); oVar.size>0 ? p(oVar[0]?) : puts(); end [note: puts quotes around strings] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Function myprint(Optional vVar = ""): Debug.Print vVar: End Function Go: myprint := fmt.Println Java: public static <T> void myprint(T vVar) {System.out.println(vVar);} public static void myprint() {System.out.println();} [note: 1 custom function with 2 overloads] JavaScript: myprint = console.log; Kotlin: fun myprint(vVar: Any?="") : Unit {println(vVar)} [also: val myprint: (Any?)->Unit = ::println] PHP: function myprint($vVar="") {func_num_args() && var_export($vVar); echo("\n");} [note: puts quotes around strings] Python: myprint = print R: myprint = \(vVar="") if (is.null(vVar)) cat("NULL\n") else message(vVar) [note: no '[1]' prefix and no quotes around strings] [also (prints '[1]' prefix and quotes strings): myprint = \(vVar) if (nargs()>0) print(vVar) else cat("\n")] Ruby: def myprint(*oVar); oVar.size>0 ? p(oVar[0]) : puts(); end [note: puts quotes around strings] Rust: macro_rules! myprint {($vVar:expr)=>{println!("{:?}", $vVar)};()=>{println!()}} [note: a custom macro] [e.g. usage: myprint!(vVar)] [note: puts quotes around strings] Scala: var myprint = (vValue:Any) => println(vValue) SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: func myprint(_ vVar: Any="") -> () {print(vVar)} [also: can use 'Void' instead of '()'] UFL: PrintType [print type of value (with newline)][see also: Any.Type/Any.TypeFull] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: MsgBox(Type(oObj))] [also: MsgBox(Object.Prototype.ToString.Call(oObj))] C++: std::printf("%s", typeid(oObj).name()) [also: std::cout << typeid(oObj).name() << "\n"] C#: Console.WriteLine(oObj.GetType().Name) [also: Console.WriteLine(oObj.GetType().FullName)] Crystal: p oObj.class [also: p oObj.class.name.split("::").last] Excel: =TYPE(A1) [also: =ERROR.TYPE(A1)] Excel VBA: Debug.Print TypeName(oObj) Go: fmt.Printf("%T\n", oObj) Java: System.out.println(oObj.getClass().getName()) [also: System.out.println(oObj.getClass().getSimpleName())] JavaScript: console.log(typeof oObj) [also: console.log(Object.prototype.toString.call(oObj))] Kotlin: println(oObj::class.qualifiedName) [also: oObj!!::class.qualifiedName] [also: println(oObj::class.simpleName)] PHP: var_dump(gettype($oObj)) [also: echo gettype($oObj) . "\n"] Python: print(type(oObj).__name__) [also: print(type(oObj))] R: typeof(oObj) [also: class(oObj)/mode(oObj)/storage.mode(oObj)] Ruby: p oObj.class [also: p oObj.class.name.split("::").last] Rust: println!("{}", type_name_of_val(&oObj)) [requires: use std::any::type_name_of_val] Scala: println(oObj.getClass().getSimpleName()) [also: println(oObj.getClass().getName())] SQL (SQLite): SELECT typeof(MyCol) FROM MyTable [also: SELECT typeof(MyCol),MyCol FROM MyTable] [also (table): SELECT name,type FROM pragma_table_info('MyTable')] Swift: print(String(describing:type(of:oObj))) [also: print(String(reflecting:type(of:oObj)))] UFL: (PrintShowMoreDigits) [to permanently/temporarily show more digits][e.g. print 2**70, e.g. print 1e20] AutoHotkey: ___ C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: ___ JavaScript: ___ [can use: BigInt(vNum).toString()] Kotlin: ___ PHP: ___ Python: ___ R: ___ [can use (default 7 sig figs, max 22 sig figs): options(digits=22)] [also (prevent 1e+5, and higher powers of 10 being printed in '1e+#' form, default 0): options(scipen=999)] Ruby: ___ Rust: ___ Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use (e.g. 10 decimal places): SELECT format('%.10f', MyCol) FROM MyTable] [alias (deprecated): printf] Swift: ___ UFL: Version [get the programming language version] AutoHotkey: A_AhkVersion C++: __cplusplus C#: ___ Crystal: Crystal::VERSION Excel: INFO("release") Excel VBA: ___ [e.g. #If VBA6 Then] [e.g. constants: VBA7/VBA6, Win64/Win32/Mac] [also: Application.Version (for the Excel version number)] Go: runtime.Version() [requires: import "runtime"] Java: System.getProperty("java.version") [also: Runtime.version().version().get(0)] JavaScript: ___ Kotlin: KotlinVersion.CURRENT PHP: phpversion() Python: sys.version [requires: import sys] R: paste(version[c("version.string")]) [also: paste(getRversion())] [also: paste(version[c("major", "minor")], collapse=".")] [also (multiple properties): version] [also (multiple properties): R.Version()] Ruby: RUBY_VERSION Rust: ___ Scala: ___ [can use: util.Properties.versionNumberString] [WARNING: states 2.x, when the version is 3.x] SQL (SQLite): sqlite_version() [e.g. print version: SELECT sqlite_version()] [also: .version] Swift: ___ [e.g. #if swift(>=5.9)] UFL: OSVersion [get the operating system type/version (e.g. Windows 10)] AutoHotkey: A_OSVersion C++: ___ C#: Environment.OSVersion Crystal: ___ [can use: Crystal::DESCRIPTION] Excel: INFO("osversion") [e.g. 'Windows (32-bit) NT 6.02'] [also: INFO("system") (e.g. 'pcdos')] Excel VBA: Application.OperatingSystem [e.g. 'Windows (32-bit) NT 6.02'] [e.g. #If Win64 Then] [e.g. constants: Win64/Win32/Mac] Go: runtime.GOOS [requires: import "runtime"] Java: System.getProperty("os.name") [also: 'os.version'/'os.arch'] JavaScript: navigator.userAgent [also: navigator.platform] Kotlin: System.getProperty("os.name") [also: 'os.version'/'os.arch'] PHP: php_uname() Python: platform.platform() [also: platform.system()/platform.release()/platform.version()/sys.platform/os.name] R: paste(version["platform"]) [also: version["arch"]/version["os"]/version["system"]] [also (multiple properties): version] [also (multiple properties): R.Version()] Ruby: RUBY_PLATFORM Rust: env::consts::OS [requires: use std::env] [also: env::consts::FAMILY, env::consts::ARCH] Scala: System.getProperty("os.name") [also: 'os.version'/'os.arch'] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ProcessInfo().operatingSystemVersion UFL: Sleep [perhaps consider friendly format options e.g. 'm'/'s'] AutoHotkey: Sleep [e.g. 1 sec: Sleep(1000)] C++: std::this_thread::sleep_for [e.g. 1 sec: std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::milliseconds(1000))] [also: sleep/usleep/nanosleep] C#: System.Threading.Thread.Sleep [e.g. 1 sec: System.Threading.Thread.Sleep(1000)] Crystal: sleep [e.g. 1 sec: sleep 1] [also: sleep(1)] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Application.Wait [e.g. Application.Wait (Now + TimeValue("0:00:01"))] [also: the Winapi (kernel32\Sleep)] Go: time.Sleep [e.g. 1 sec: time.Sleep(1 * time.Second)] [requires: import "time"] Java: Thread.sleep [e.g. 1 sec: Thread.sleep(1000)] [also: TimeUnit.SECONDS.sleep] [note: both require a try/catch block] JavaScript: ___ [can use: 'while' and 'new Date()'] [can use (inside an async function): await new Promise(r => setTimeout(r, 1000))] Kotlin: Thread.sleep [e.g. 1 sec: Thread.sleep(1000)] [also: TimeUnit.SECONDS.sleep] PHP: sleep [also: usleep] [e.g. 1 sec: sleep(1)] [e.g. 1 sec: usleep(1000000)] Python: time.sleep [e.g. 1 sec: sleep(1)] [note: sleep accepts fractions of seconds, e.g. 0.5 sec: sleep(0.5)] R: Sys.sleep [e.g. 1 sec: Sys.sleep(1)] Ruby: sleep [e.g. 1 sec: sleep 1] [also: sleep(1)] Rust: thread::sleep [e.g. 1 sec: thread::sleep(time::Duration::from_millis(1000))] [requires: use std::{thread, time}] Scala: Thread.sleep [e.g. 1 sec: Thread.sleep(1000)] SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use (if using the SQLite C/C++ Interface): sqlite3_sleep()] Swift: sleep [also: usleep] [e.g. 1 sec: sleep(1)] [e.g. 1 sec: usleep(1000000)] UFL: TickCount [get the current time (e.g. in milliseconds) (typically centisecond accuracy, or a higher resolution if possible), take the difference of 2 timestamps to get the time elapsed][e.g. milliseconds since program started, milliseconds since PC switched on][see also: BenchmarkTest] AutoHotkey: A_TickCount [e.g. vMSec := A_TickCount] [note: A_TickCount, a built-in variable] [type: Integer] C++: std::chrono::system_clock::now [e.g. oTime = std::chrono::high_resolution_clock::now()] [also: the Winapi (kernel32\GetTickCount64)] [type (a time point): e.g. NSt3__26chrono10time_pointINS0_12steady_clockENS0_8durationIxNS_5ratioILx1ELx1000000000EEEEEEE] [requires: #include <chrono>] C#: DateTime.Now [e.g. oTime = DateTime.Now] [type: DateTime] Crystal: Time.local [e.g. oTime = Time.local] [also: Time.utc] [type (both): Time] Excel: NOW [e.g. milliseconds: TEXT(NOW()*86400000,"0")] [also: TEXT(NOW(),"hh:mm:ss.000")] [note: NOW() returns days plus fractions of days] [note: Copy, Paste Special..., Values, to lock the values] [type (NOW): 1 (Number)] [type (TEXT): 2 (Text)] Excel VBA: Timer [e.g. vSec = Timer] [note: seconds plus fractions of seconds] [type: Single] Go: time.Now() [e.g. oTime := time.Now()] [requires: import "time"] [type: time.Time] Java: System.currentTimeMillis [e.g. vMSec = System.currentTimeMillis()] [also: System.nanoTime] [type (both): long] JavaScript: performance.now [e.g. vMSec = performance.now()] [type: number] Kotlin: System.currentTimeMillis [e.g. vMSec = System.currentTimeMillis()] [also: System.nanoTime] [type: Long] PHP: microtime [e.g. $vSec = microtime(true)] [note: seconds plus fractions of seconds] [type: double] Python: time.time [e.g. vSec = time.time()] [note: seconds plus fractions of seconds] [type: float] R: Sys.time() [e.g. oTime = Sys.time()] [type: double (class: POSIXct POSIXt)] [type (difference of 2 times): double (class: difftime)] Ruby: Time.now [e.g. oTime = Time.now] [type: Time] Rust: time::SystemTime::now [e.g. oTime = time::SystemTime::now()] [requires: use std::time] [type: std::time::SystemTime] Scala: System.currentTimeMillis [e.g. vMSec = System.currentTimeMillis()] [also: System.nanoTime] [type (both): long] SQL (SQLite): julianday [e.g. (milliseconds): julianday() * 86400000] [also (milliseconds): unixepoch('subsec') * 1000] Swift: DispatchTime.now [e.g. vNSec = DispatchTime.now().uptimeNanoseconds] [requires: import Foundation] [type: UInt64] UFL: SetTimer [create a timer, e.g. to execute a function once at a specific time, or at regular intervals] AutoHotkey: SetTimer C++: ___ C#: System.Timers.Timer Crystal: Thread.new Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Application.OnTime Go: time.NewTimer [requires: import "time"] Java: java.util.Timer JavaScript: setInterval [also: setTimeout] Kotlin: java.util.Timer [also: android.os.Handler] PHP: ___ Python: threading.timer R: ___ Ruby: Thread.new Rust: ___ [can use: tokio::spawn] Scala: java.util.Timer [e.g. oTimer = new java.util.Timer()] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: Timer.scheduledTimer UFL: Assert [for testing: confirm that a value is equal to another value, else throw] AutoHotkey: ___ C++: assert [e.g. assert(vVar1 == vVar2)] [note: assert macro] [requires: #include <cassert>] C#: Debug.Assert [e.g. Debug.Assert(vVar1 == vVar2)] [also: Trace.Assert] [requires: using System.Diagnostics] [WARNING: may need to enable debug mode, and/or use listeners] Crystal: should [e.g. vVar1.should eq(vVar2)] [requires: require "spec"] Excel: ___ [can use: can simply type in expressions e.g. '=A1=A2'] [can use: IF] Excel VBA: Debug.Assert [e.g. Debug.Assert vVar1 = vVar2] Go: ___ Java: assert [e.g. assert vVar1 == vVar2] [e.g. assert vVar1 == vVar2 : "my error message"] [WARNING: -enableassertions (or -ea) switch must be on] [note: assert keyword] [can use: if (!vCond) throw new AssertionError()] JavaScript: ___ Kotlin: assert [e.g. assert(vVar1 == vVar2)] [also: assertEquals] [e.g. assertEquals(vVar1, vVar2)] [WARNING: assertEquals parameter order is 'expected' then 'actual'] [requires (assertEquals): import kotlin.test.assertEquals] PHP: assert [e.g. assert($vVar1 == $vVar2)] Python: assert [e.g. assert vVar1 == vVar2] [note: assert statement] R: stopifnot [e.g. stopifnot(vVar1 == vVar2)] [e.g. stopifnot("my error message" = vVar1 == vVar2)] Ruby: assert_equal [e.g. assert_equal(vVar1, vVar2)] [requires: require "test/unit/assertions"] [requires: include Test::Unit::Assertions] Rust: assert [e.g. assert!(vVar1==vVar2, "my error message")] [also: assert_eq!] [note: assert/assert_eq macros] Scala: assert [e.g. assert(2+2 == 4)] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: assert [e.g. assert(vVar1 == vVar2)] Section: Error Handling UFL: Try/Catch/Finally [note: are braces needed for branches] AutoHotkey: try/catch/finally C++: try/catch/___ C#: try/catch/finally Crystal: begin/rescue/ensure/end Excel: ___/___/___ Excel VBA: ___/___/___ [can use: 'On Error Resume Next' (disables error reporting, but the Err object is still updated), 'On Error Goto MyLabel:' (e.g. can be used as a catch block workaround), 'On Error Goto 0' (default, enables error reporting)] Go: ___/___/___ Java: try/catch/finally JavaScript: try/catch/finally Kotlin: try/catch/finally PHP: try/catch/finally Python: try/except/finally R: ___/___/___ [can use: tryCatch (with params: expr/error/finally, also warning)] Ruby: begin/rescue/ensure/end Rust: ___/___/___ Scala: try/catch/finally SQL (SQLite): ___/___/___ Swift: do/catch/___ [also: try] [also: defer] UFL: Throw [code to indicate that an error has occurred][typically 'throw' within a 'try' block leads to 'catch'/'finally' blocks being executed, and code outside a 'try' block ends the program] AutoHotkey: throw Error("my message") C++: throw std::runtime_error("my message") [note: various classes derive from std::exception] [can use (with catch, but not throw): std::exception] C#: throw new Exception("my message") Crystal: raise "my message" Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Err.Raise 1234, , "my message" Go: ___ [can use: panic("my message")] Java: throw new Exception("my message") [also: Error()] JavaScript: throw new Error("my message") Kotlin: throw Exception("my message") PHP: throw new Exception("my message") Python: raise Exception("my message") R: ___ [can use: stop("my message")] [also: stop()] Ruby: raise "my message" Rust: ___ Scala: throw new Exception("my message") [also: Error()] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ [can use: throw NSError(domain:"my message", code:1234)] [WARNING: lacks a convenient message field, workaround: use domain field] [also: fatalError("my message")] [requires (NSError): import Foundation] UFL: Error [(or Exception)][create an object with information describing an error] AutoHotkey: Error [note: Exception in AHK v1] C++: std::runtime_error [note: various classes derive from std::exception] [can use (with catch, but not throw): std::exception] C#: Exception Crystal: Exception [e.g. raise Exception.new("my message")] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ [can use: panic("my message")] Java: Exception [also: Error()] JavaScript: Error Kotlin: Exception PHP: Exception [also: ErrorException(), Error()] Python: Exception R: ___ [can use: tryCatch] [also: stop("my message")] [also: stop()] Ruby: StandardError [e.g. raise StandardError.new "my message"] Rust: ___ Scala: Exception [also: Error()] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ [can use: NSError()] [also: fatalError()] [requires (NSError): import Foundation] UFL: FatalError [or Exit][end program/script early, e.g. for testing/debugging][the exact behaviours differ across languages] AutoHotkey: ExitApp() C++: exit(1) [e.g. 0 for success, non-zero for failure] C#: throw new Exception() [WARNING: this would be caught if within a try block] Crystal: abort Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Exit Sub [note: different from 'End Sub'] Go: ___ [can use: panic("my message")] Java: System.exit(0) JavaScript: throw "" [WARNING: this would be caught if within a try block] Kotlin: exitProcess(0) [note: import kotlin.system.exitProcess] [also (to just throw an exception): throw Exception()] PHP: die Python: raise SystemExit [also: sys.exit()] [WARNING: if the current thread is not the main thread, code may still execute] R: ___ [can use: stop("my message")] [also: stop()] Ruby: abort [note: in some situations, 'rescue'/'ensure' blocks can still be executed] Rust: process::exit(1) [requires: use std::process] Scala: System.exit(0) SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: .quit] Swift: fatalError() Section: Loops UFL: LoopCountIncDemo [(or LoopRangeIncDemo/LoopIncDemo)][loop n times (loop from 1 to 10, both inclusive)][see also: Range.New] AutoHotkey: Loop 10 [note (value): A_Index will contain 1, 2, 3 etc] C++: for (int i=1; i<=10; i++) [note: ++i may be preferable to i++] C#: for (int i=1; i<=10; i++) Crystal: (1..10).each do |i| [also: 1.upto(10) do |i|] [afterwards: end] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: For i = 1 To 10 [afterwards: Next] Go: for i := 1; i <= 10; i++ Java: for (int i=1; i<=10; i++) JavaScript: for (let i=1; i<=10; i++) Kotlin: for (i in 1..10) [note: *doesn't work*: for (i in 1 to 10)] [also: for (i in 1.rangeTo(10))] PHP: for ($i=1; $i<=10; $i++) Python: for i in range(1, 10+1): R: for (i in 1:10) [also: for (i in seq(1, 10, 1))] [also: for (i in seq_len(10))] Ruby: for i in 1..10 [also: (1..10).each do |i|] [also: 1.upto(10) do |i|] [afterwards: end] Rust: for i in 1..=10 Scala: for(i <- 1 to 10) SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: common table expressions, e.g. 'WITH RECURSIVE' etc] Swift: for i in 1...10 [also (if value is unused): for _ in 1...10] UFL: LoopCountIncDemoFloat [(or LoopRangeIncDemoFloat/LoopIncDemoFloat)][loop through a float range, with a step (loop from -10 to 10, with step 0.5, both inclusive)][see also: Range.NewWithStep] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: Loop 41] [e.g. x := vStart+vStep*(A_Index-1)] [beforehand: vStart := -10, vStep := 0.5] [note (value): A_Index will contain 1, 2, 3 etc] C++: for (double x=-10; x<=10; x += 0.5) C#: for (double x=-10; x<=10; x += 0.5) Crystal: (-10..10).step(0.5).each do |x| [afterwards: end] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: For x = -10 To 10 Step 0.5 [afterwards: Next] Go: for x := -10.0; x <= 10.0; x += 0.5 Java: for (double x=-10; x<=10; x += 0.5) JavaScript: for (let x=-10; x<=10; x += 0.5) Kotlin: ___ [can use: for (x in (-100..100 step 5).map{it/10.0 as Double})] PHP: for ($x=-10; $x<=10; $x += 0.5) Python: ___ [can use: for x in (i/10 for i in range(-100, 100+1, 5)):] R: for (x in seq(-10, 10, 0.5)) Ruby: for x in (-10..10).step(0.5) [also: (-10..10).step(0.5).each do |x|] [afterwards: end] Rust: ___ [can use: for x in (-100..=100).step_by(5).map(|i|i as f64 * 0.1)] Scala: ___ [can use: for(x <- Range.inclusive(-100, 100, 5).map(_/10.toDouble))] SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: common table expressions, e.g. 'WITH RECURSIVE' etc] Swift: for x in stride(from:-10, through:10, by:0.5) [also (if value is unused): for _ in stride(from:-10, through:10, by:0.5)] UFL: LoopCountIncExcDemo [(or (LoopRangeExcDemo)][loop n times (loop from 0 inclusive to 10 exclusive)][i.e. 0 to 9 inclusive] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: Loop 10] [note (value): A_Index-1] C++: for (int i=0; i<10; i++) [note: ++i may be preferable to i++] C#: for (int i=0; i<10; i++) Crystal: (0...10).each do |i| [afterwards: end] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: For i = 0 To (10 - 1) [note: parentheses unnecessary, for clarity] [afterwards: Next] Go: for i := 0; i < 10; i++ [also: for i := range 10] Java: for (int i=0; i<10; i++) JavaScript: for (let i=0; i<10; i++) Kotlin: for (i in 0..<10) [also: for (i in 0 until 10)] [also: for (i in 0.rangeUntil(10))] PHP: for ($i=0; $i<10; $i++) Python: for i in range(0, 10): [WARNING: range uses exclusive end] R: for (i in 0:(10-1)) Ruby: for i in 0...10 [also: (0...10).each do |i|] [afterwards: end] Rust: for i in 0..10 [WARNING: .. uses exclusive end] Scala: for(i <- 0 until 10) SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: common table expressions, e.g. 'WITH RECURSIVE' etc] Swift: for i in 0..<10 [also (if value is unused): for _ in 0..<10] UFL: LoopCountDecDemo [(or LoopRangeDecDemo)][loop n times (loop from 10 to 1, both inclusive)] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: Loop 10] [note (value): 11-A_Index will give 10, 9, 8 etc] C++: for (int i=10; i>=1; i--) [note: --i may be preferable to i--] C#: for (int i=10; i>=1; i--) Crystal: (10).downto(1) do |i| [afterwards: end] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: For i = 10 To 1 Step -1 [afterwards: Next] Go: for i := 10; i >= 1; i-- Java: for (int i=10; i>=1; i--) JavaScript: for (let i=10; i>=1; i--) Kotlin: for (i in 10 downTo 1) PHP: for ($i=10; $i>=1; $i--) Python: for i in range(10, 1-1, -1): R: for (i in 10:1) [also: for (i in seq(10, 1, -1))] Ruby: for i in (10).downto(1) [also: (10).downto(1) do |i|] [afterwards: end] Rust: for i in (1..=10).rev() Scala: for(i <- 10 to 1 by -1) SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: common table expressions, e.g. 'WITH RECURSIVE' etc] Swift: for i in stride(from:10, through:1, by:-1) [also: for i in (1...10).reversed()] [note: use 'to' instead of 'through' for exclusive end] [note: if value is unused, use _] UFL: LoopCountDecExcDemo [(or (LoopRangeDecExcDemo)][loop n times (loop from 10 exclusive to 0 inclusive)][i.e. 9 to 0 inclusive] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: Loop 10] [note (value): 10-A_Index will give 9, 8, 7 etc] C++: for (int i=10-1; i>=0; i--) [note: --i may be preferable to i--] C#: for (int i=10-1; i>=0; i--) Crystal: (10-1).downto(0) do |i| [afterwards: end] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: For i = (10 - 1) To 0 Step -1 [afterwards: Next] Go: for i := 10 - 1; i >= 0; i-- Java: for (int i=10-1; i>=0; i--) JavaScript: for (let i=10-1; i>=0; i--) Kotlin: for (i in 10-1 downTo 0) PHP: for ($i=10-1; $i>=0; $i--) Python: for i in range(10-1, 0-1, -1): R: for (i in (10-1):0) [also: for (i in seq(10-1, 0, -1))] Ruby: for i in (10-1).downto(0) [also: (10-1).downto(0) do |i|] [afterwards: end] Rust: for i in (0..10).rev() Scala: for(i <- 10-1 to 0 by -1) SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: common table expressions, e.g. 'WITH RECURSIVE' etc] Swift: for i in stride(from:10-1, through:0, by:-1) [also: for i in (0..<10).reversed()] [note: use 'to' instead of 'through' for exclusive end] [note: if value is unused, use _] UFL: LoopInfinite [infinite loop (e.g. loop 1 to infinity, infinite range) (an alternative: 0 to infinity)] AutoHotkey: Loop [also: while True] [note (value): A_Index will contain 1, 2, 3 etc] C++: for(;;) [also: while(1)] [also: for (int i=1;; i++)] C#: for(;;) [also: while(true)] [also: for (int i=1;; i++)] Crystal: loop do [also: while true] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Do While True [afterwards: Loop] Go: for Java: for(;;) [also: while(true)] [also: for (int i=1;; i++)] JavaScript: for(;;) [also: while(1)] [also: for (let i=1;; i++)] Kotlin: while(true) [also: for (i in generateSequence(1){it+1})] PHP: also: for(;;) [also: while(1)] [also: for ($i=1;; $i++)] Python: while True: [also: for i in itertools.count(start=1):] R: while (TRUE) Ruby: loop do [also: while true] Rust: loop [also: while true] Scala: while(true) SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: common table expressions, e.g. 'WITH RECURSIVE' etc] Swift: while true [also: for i in 1...] [also (if value is unused): for _ in 1...] UFL: Break/Continue [break: end a loop (break out of a loop)][continue: end current loop iteration (skip to next iteration)] AutoHotkey: break/continue C++: break/continue C#: break/continue Crystal: break/next Excel: ___/___ Excel VBA: Exit For/___ Go: break/continue Java: break/continue JavaScript: break/continue Kotlin: break/continue PHP: break/continue Python: break/continue R: break/next Ruby: break/next Rust: break/continue Scala: ___/___ [can use: breakable and break] [requires (breakable): import scala.util.control.Breaks._] SQL (SQLite): ___/___ Swift: break/continue UFL: (BreakMult)/(ContinueMult) [break: break out of multiple levels of a loop][continue: continue applied to multiple levels of a loop] AutoHotkey: break MyLabel/continue MyLabel [also: e.g. 2 levels: break 2/continue 2] C++: ___/___ C#: ___/___ Crystal: ___/___ Excel: ___/___ Excel VBA: ___/___ Go: break MyLabel/continue MyLabel Java: break MyLabel/continue MyLabel JavaScript: break MyLabel/continue MyLabel Kotlin: break@MyLabel/continue@MyLabel PHP: ___/___ [also: e.g. 2 levels: break 2/continue 2] Python: ___/___ R: ___/___ Ruby: ___/___ Rust: break 'MyLabel/continue 'MyLabel Scala: ___/___ SQL (SQLite): ___/___ Swift: break MyLabel/continue MyLabel Section: Keywords / Constants UFL: IfKeywords [if-statement][note: state if bool/parentheses/braces needed] AutoHotkey: if c / else if c / else [note: parentheses *not* needed] C++: if (c) / else if (c) / else C#: if (c) / else if (c) / else [WARNING: c must be a bool] Crystal: if c / elsif c / else / end [note: parentheses *not* needed] Excel: IF(c,x,y) [note: c must be a bool or numeric] Excel VBA: If c Then / ElseIf c Then / Else / End If [note: c must be a bool or numeric] [note: parentheses *not* needed] Go: if c / else if c / else [WARNING: c must be a bool] [note: parentheses *not* needed] Java: if (c) / else if (c) / else [WARNING: c must be a bool] JavaScript: if (c) / else if (c) / else Kotlin: if (c) / else if (c) / else [WARNING: c must be a bool] [note: can be used in expressions] PHP: if (c) / else if (c) / else Python: if c: / elif c: / else: [note: parentheses *not* needed] R: if (c) / else if (c) / else [note: c must be a bool or numeric] [note: 'else if'/'else' must be preceded by '}' on the same line] Ruby: if c / elsif c / else / end [note: parentheses *not* needed] Rust: if c / else if c / else [WARNING: c must be a bool] [WARNING: requires braces for 1-line statements] [note: can be used in expressions] [note: parentheses *not* needed] Scala: if (c) / else if (c) / else [WARNING: c must be a bool] [note: can be used in expressions] SQL (SQLite): CASE WHEN/WHEN/ELSE/END [e.g. CASE WHEN x=w1 THEN r1 WHEN x=w2 THEN r2 ELSE r3 END] Swift: if (c) / else if (c) / else [WARNING: c must be a bool] [WARNING: requires braces for 1-line statements] UFL: SwitchKeywords [switch statement] AutoHotkey: switch/case/default [note: no fall-through] C++: switch/case/default [note: uses fall-through] [WARNING: the input value cannot be a string] C#: switch/case/default [note: no fall-through] [WARNING: C# requires 'break' for *every* case/default (i.e. it looks like fall-through is possible, but it is not, the breaks cannot be removed)] Crystal: case/when/else/end [note: no fall-through] Excel: ___/___/___ Excel VBA: Select/Case/Case Else/End Select [note: no fall-through] Go: switch/case/default [note: no fall-through (unless use 'fallthrough' keyword one or more times)] Java: switch/case/default [note: uses fall-through] [also: switch expressions: also switch/case/default (but *no* fall-through)] JavaScript: switch/case/default [note: uses fall-through] Kotlin: when/(pattern)/else [note: no fall-through] PHP: switch/case/default [note: uses fall-through] Python: match/case/case _ [note: no fall-through] R: ___/___/___ [can use: switch() one-liners, equivalent to a map/dictionary key lookup, returns NULL if not found] [note: no fall-through] Ruby: case/when/else/end [note: no fall-through] Rust: match/(pattern)/_ [note: no fall-through] [note: must be exhaustive (i.e. all possible values must be covered) (workaround: add a default case)] Scala: match/case/case _ [note: no fall-through] [WARNING: throws if no match (workaround: add a default case)] SQL (SQLite): CASE/WHEN/ELSE/END [e.g. CASE x WHEN w1 THEN r1 WHEN w2 THEN r2 ELSE r3 END] Swift: switch/case/default [note: no fall-through] [note: must be exhaustive (i.e. all possible values must be covered) (workaround: add a default case)] UFL: Null [note: to delete a variable, see VarDelete/Any.DelRef][see also: Optional.NewNull] AutoHotkey: unset [note: case-insensitive] C++: nullptr [note: NULL macro expands to 0] [also (functions): void] C#: null [also (functions): void] [WARNING: null printed as a blank string] Crystal: nil Excel: #NULL! [e.g. type '#NULL!' or '=A1 A2' or '=SUM(A1 A2)' into a cell] [note: use ERROR.TYPE() to get the error type] Excel VBA: Nothing [note: also Empty/Null] [e.g. Set vVar = Nothing] [e.g. vVar = Empty] [e.g. vVar = Null] [e.g. obtain Empty: a variable that hasn't been used yet/ReDim an array then get a value/store the result of a function with no return value] Go: nil [e.g. var vNil []int = nil] Java: null [also (functions): void] JavaScript: null [also: undefined] [also (array values): 'elided'/'empty'] [also: void operator] Kotlin: null [also: Nothing e.g. vVar is Nothing?] [also (functions): Unit] [note: Void is a Java class (with no special meaning in Kotlin)] PHP: null [note: case-insensitive] [also (functions): void, never] [WARNING: null printed as a blank string or as 'NULL' (depending on the function)] Python: None [also: del statement] R: NULL [also: NA] [note: NA and NaN are different] Ruby: nil Rust: ___ [also (option objects): None] [e.g. vNone: Option<i32> = None] Scala: null [also (functions): Unit] SQL (SQLite): NULL [inverse: count() counts non-nulls in a group] Swift: nil [also (functions): Void] UFL: NullDemo [assign null to a variable] AutoHotkey: vVar := unset [note: Type(unset) throws] C++: auto vVar = nullptr [type: Dn] C#: string vVar = null [note: null.GetType().Name throws] [also: Console.WriteLine((string)null)] Crystal: vVar = nil [type: Nil] Excel: #NULL! [type: 16 (error type: 1)] Excel VBA: Set vVar = Nothing [type: Nothing] [also: vVar = Null] [type: Null] [also: vVar = Empty] [type: Empty] [note: throws: Debug.Print Nothing] Go: vVar interface{} = nil [type: <nil>] Java: Integer vVar = null [note: null.getClass().getSimpleName()) throws] [also: System.out.println((Integer)null)] JavaScript: vVar = null [type: object] [also: vVar = undefined] [type: undefined] Kotlin: vVar = null [note: null::class.simpleName throws] PHP: $vVar = null [type: Null] Python: vVar = None [type: NoneType] R: vVar = NULL [type (NULL): NULL] [also: vVar = NA] [type (NA): logical] Ruby: vVar = nil [type: NilClass] Rust: vVar: Option<i32> = None [type: core::option::Option<i32>] [also: println!("{:?}", None::<i32>)] Scala: vVar = null [note: null.getClass().getSimpleName()) throws] SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: UPDATE MyTable SET v=NULL WHERE k='MyKey'] [type: null] Swift: vVar: Int? = nil [type: e.g. Optional<Int>] [also: print(nil as Any? as Any)] UFL: IsNull [see also: Null/Array.KeyIsEmpty/FuncVoidType/Optional.IsNull] AutoHotkey: vIsNull = !IsSet(vVar) C++: ___ [e.g. (std::string): vIsNull = (vVar == (std::string)NULL)] [WARNING: NULL is defined as 0, so for many types, e.g. int, comparing with null is actually comparing with 0] C#: vIsNull = (vVar == null) [also: !vVar.HasValue] Crystal: vIsNull = vVar.nil? [also: vIsNull = (vVar == nil)] Excel: =ERROR.TYPE(A1)=1 Excel VBA: ___ [e.g. (TypeName(vVar) = "Nothing")] [e.g. (TypeName(vVar) = "Empty")] [e.g. (TypeName(vVar) = "Null")] [also (throws if vVar is not an object): vIsNull = vVar Is Nothing] [inverse: Not vVar Is Nothing] [also: IsNull(vVar)] [also: IsEmpty(vVar)] Go: vIsNull := (vVar == nil) Java: var vIsNull = (vVar == null) [e.g. optional object: !oOpt.isPresent()] JavaScript: vIsNull = (vVar === null) [also (is undefined): (vVar == undefined)] [also (is undefined): (typeof vVar == "undefined")] [WARNING: vVar == null returns true for null *and undefined*] Kotlin: vIsNull = (vVar == null) [also: vVar is Nothing?] [e.g. nullable object: (oOpt == null)] [inverse: vVar !is Nothing?] PHP: $vIsNull = is_null($vVar) [also: !isset($vVar)] [also: ($vVar == null)] Python: vIsNull = (vVar == None) [also: vVar is None] [inverse: vVar is not None] R: vIsNull = is.null(vVar) [also: is.na()/exists()/missing()] Ruby: vIsNull = vVar.nil? [also: vIsNull = (vVar == nil)] Rust: vIsNull = (vVar == None) [e.g. option object: (oOpt == None)] [also: oOpt.is_none()] [also: !oOpt.is_some()] Scala: vIsNull = !Option(vVar).isDefined [also (doesn't work on ints): var vIsNull = (vVar == null)] SQL (SQLite): (MyCol IS NULL) [inverse: MyCol IS NOT NULL] [WARNING: 'MyCol == NULL' always returns NULL] [WARNING: ifnull(v1, v2) is equivalent to coalesce(v1, v2), it returns the first non-null argument, else null] Swift: vIsNull = (vVar == nil) [e.g. optional object: (oOpt == nil)] UFL: VarDelete [note: typically: deleting an object instance deletes 1 reference, and only when the last reference is deleted, is the object deleted][see also: Any.DelRef] AutoHotkey: vVar := unset [note: in AHK v1: 'vVar := ""' and 'vVar := 0' were common] C++: delete vVar [also: delete[] vVar] [note: 'delete'/'delete[]' must be used for variables created with 'new'] [note: 'free' must be used for variables created with 'malloc'] C#: vVar = null Crystal: vVar = nil Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Set vVar = Nothing [note: doesn't work with all types] Go: vVar = nil Java: vVar = null JavaScript: vVar = null [also: vVar = undefined] [also: void operator] Kotlin: vVar = null PHP: unset($vVar) [also: $vVar = null] [note: unset() sets contents to null] Python: del vVar [also: vVar = None] R: rm(vVar) [e.g. rm(vVar1, vVar2, vVar3)] [also: vVar = NULL] Ruby: vVar = nil Rust: drop(vVar) Scala: vVar = null [note: doesn't work on ints] SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: UPDATE MyTable SET v=NULL WHERE k='MyKey'] [also: DROP, e.g. DROP TABLE MyTable] [also: DELETE] Swift: vVar = nil UFL: Import [(or Include)] AutoHotkey: #Include [also: #IncludeAgain] C++: #include [e.g. #include <iostream>] [e.g. #include <string>] [e.g. #include <map>] C#: using [e.g. using System] [e.g. using System.Linq] [e.g. using System.Collections.Generic] Crystal: require [also: include/extend] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ [can use: Workbooks.Open and Run] Go: import [e.g. import "fmt"] [note: the Go Playground auto-formats multiple imports into one] Java: import [e.g. import java.util.*] [e.g. import java.util.stream.*] JavaScript: import [also: <script src="MyFile.js"></script>] Kotlin: import PHP: include [also: require/include_once/require_once] Python: import [e.g. import sys] [e.g. from functools import reduce] R: library Ruby: require [also: include/extend] Rust: use [e.g. use std::time] Scala: import [e.g. import scala.math] [e.g. import scala.math._] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: import [e.g. import Foundation] Section: Function/Class Definitions UFL: (IsCallable) [does a variable contain something function-like/method-like] AutoHotkey: HasMethod(vVar) C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: vVar.responds_to? :call Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: ___ JavaScript: ___ [can use: vVar instanceof Function] [also: typeof vVar == "function"] Kotlin: ___ PHP: is_callable($vVar) Python: callable(vVar) R: ___ [can use: class(vVar) == "function"] [also: typeof(vVar) == "closure"] Ruby: vVar.respond_to? :call Rust: ___ Scala: ___ [can use: vVar.getClass().getSimpleName().contains("Lambda")] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ [note: can check if type contains ' -> ': String(describing:type(of:vVar))] UFL: (FuncAnonTypeDemo) [get type for 'MyAddAnon' examples in FuncDemoAdd (anonymous functions)] AutoHotkey: ___ [type: Func] C++: ___ [type: e.g. Z4mainE3$_0] C#: ___ [type: Func`3] Crystal: ___ [type: Proc(Int32, Int32, Int32)] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ [type: func(int, int) int] Java: ___ [type: e.g. HelloWorld$$Lambda$1/0x0000000100060840] JavaScript: ___ [type: function] Kotlin: ___ [type: null] PHP: ___ [type: object] Python: ___ [type: function] R: ___ [type: closure (class: function)] Ruby: ___ [type: Proc] Rust: ___ [type: e.g. playground::main::MyAddAnon] Scala: ___ [type: e.g. Playground$$$Lambda$7748/0x00007f6c56502800] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ [type: (Int, Int) -> Int] UFL: (FuncTypeDemo) [get type for 'MyAdd' examples in FuncDemoAdd (functions)] AutoHotkey: ___ [type: Func] C++: ___ [type: FiiiE] C#: ___ Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ [type: func(int, int) int] Java: ___ JavaScript: ___ [type: function] Kotlin: ___ PHP: ___ Python: ___ [type: function] R: ___ [type: closure (class: function)] Ruby: ___ Rust: ___ [type: e.g. playground::main::MyAdd] Scala: ___ [type: e.g. Playground$$$Lambda$7748/0x00007f6c56502800] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ [type: (Int, Int) -> Int] UFL: FuncBelow [functions *can* be defined below where they are called] AutoHotkey: yes C++: yes [note: functions must be defined above where they are called (workaround: *declare* the function above where it is called)] C#: yes Crystal: yes Excel: ___ Excel VBA: yes Go: yes Java: yes JavaScript: yes Kotlin: no [WARNING: functions must be defined above where they are called] PHP: yes Python: no [WARNING: functions must be defined above where they are called] R: no [WARNING: functions must be defined above where they are called] Ruby: no [WARNING: functions must be defined above where they are called] Rust: yes Scala: yes SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes UFL: FuncMutable [function parameters are mutable][i.e. can a parameter variable be overwritten] AutoHotkey: yes C++: yes C#: yes Crystal: yes Excel: ___ Excel VBA: yes Go: yes Java: yes JavaScript: yes Kotlin: no [WARNING: function parameter values (not object members) are read-only (they are not mutable) (workaround: do 'var vMyParamVar = vMyParamVar' to create a local copy, but it leaves a warning)] PHP: yes Python: yes R: yes Ruby: yes Rust: no [WARNING: function parameter values (not object members) are read-only (they are not mutable) (workaround: do 'let mut vMyParamVar = vMyParamVar' to create a local copy)] Scala: no [WARNING: function parameter values (not object members) are read-only (they are not mutable)] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes [WARNING: function parameter values (not object members) are read-only (they are not mutable) (workaround: do 'var vMyParamVar = vMyParamVar' to create a local copy)] UFL: FuncVoidType [return type in function definition, for function with no return value] AutoHotkey: ___ C++: void C#: void Crystal: ___ [can use: Nil] [can use: Void] [note: types can be omitted] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: void JavaScript: ___ Kotlin: Unit PHP: ___ Python: ___ R: ___ Ruby: ___ Rust: ___ [can use: '()', the unit type] [note: '()' can be omitted] Scala: Unit SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: () [also: Void] UFL: FuncOmitReturn ['return' *can* be omitted in standard function definitions][implicit return][e.g. last-line return] AutoHotkey: no C++: no C#: no Crystal: yes Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ [note: return value is set by assigning to the function name] Go: no Java: no JavaScript: no Kotlin: no [note: 'return' can be omitted in an expression body, but not a block body] PHP: no Python: no R: yes Ruby: yes Rust: yes Scala: yes SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes UFL: FuncAnonOmitReturn ['return' *can* be omitted in anonymous function definitions][implicit return] AutoHotkey: yes C++: no [WARNING: 'return' can't be omitted in anonymous functions] C#: yes Crystal: yes Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: no [WARNING: 'return' can't be omitted in anonymous functions] Java: yes JavaScript: yes Kotlin: yes PHP: yes Python: yes R: yes Ruby: yes Rust: yes Scala: yes SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes UFL: FuncMultReturn [function can return multiple values][i.e. can specify multiple variables to receive multiple values][e.g. via tuples, e.g. via destructuring assignment] AutoHotkey: no [can use: VarRef parameters (AHK v1: ByRef parameters)] C++: yes [e.g. std::tie(a, b, c) = MyRetMult()] [e.g. use std::make_tuple and return a tuple] C#: yes [e.g. (a, b, c) = MyRetMult()] [also: can use 'out' parameters] Crystal: yes [e.g. a, b, c = MyRetMult.call()] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: no Go: yes [e.g. a, b, c := MyRetMult()] Java: no JavaScript: yes [e.g. [a, b, c] = MyRetMult()] Kotlin: yes [e.g. var (a, b, c) = MyRetMult()] [note: can use Pair/Triple, and destructuring declaration (but not destructuring assignment, i.e. can initialise variables, but not update variables)] PHP: no Python: yes [e.g. a, b, c = MyRetMult()] R: no Ruby: yes [e.g. a, b, c = MyRetMult.call()] Rust: yes [e.g. (a, b, c) = MyRetMult()] Scala: yes [e.g. var (a, b, c) = MyRetMult()] [note: can use Tuple, and destructuring declaration (but not destructuring assignment, i.e. can initialise variables, but not update variables)] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes [e.g. (a, b, c) = MyRetMult()] UFL: FuncAnonKeyword [keyword (if any) needed to call anonymous functions] AutoHotkey: ___ [deprecated: AHK v1: Call (AHK v2 onwards: none)] C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: call Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: ___ [e.g. accept/apply/get/test, applyAsDouble/applyAsInt/applyAsLong, getAsBoolean/getAsDouble/getAsInt/getAsLong] JavaScript: ___ Kotlin: ___ PHP: ___ Python: ___ R: ___ Ruby: call Rust: ___ Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ UFL: FuncVarSupersede [can create a variable with the same name a standard function, and supersede it][e.g. an anonymous function can supersede/override/'overwrite' a standard function] AutoHotkey: no [can use: a function's behaviour can be changed via MyFunc.DefineProp("Call", {Call:MyFuncNew})] [note: AHK throws if attempt to assign to a variable with the same name as a function] C++: yes C#: yes Crystal: no [note: myFunc() and myFunc.call() would call different functions] [note: 'myFunc', not 'MyFunc', because function names can't start with a capital letter] Excel: no Excel VBA: no Go: yes Java: no [note: MyFunc() and MyFunc.apply() (or accept()/get()/test() etc) would call different functions] JavaScript: yes Kotlin: yes PHP: no [note: a variable name requires '$', $MyFunc won't override MyFunc] Python: yes R: yes Ruby: no [note: MyFunc() and MyFunc.call() would call different functions] Rust: yes Scala: no [note: a double definition error would occur (or a function overload occurs)] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes UFL: FuncOverload [can do function overloading?][e.g. same name, different param count (or different param types)] AutoHotkey: no C++: yes [note: C does not support function overloading] C#: yes Crystal: yes Excel: ___ Excel VBA: no Go: no Java: yes JavaScript: no Kotlin: yes PHP: no Python: no R: no Ruby: no Rust: no Scala: yes SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes UFL: FuncDefineMult [can a standard function be defined more than once][i.e. anonymous functions don't count][see also: FuncBelow] AutoHotkey: no [note: can't have 2 functions with the same name] C++: yes (overloads) [note: function overloads are allowed, but can't have 2 functions with the same name/types/param counts] C#: yes (overloads) [note: function overloads are allowed, but can't have 2 functions with the same name/types/param counts] Crystal: yes (overloads) [MAJOR WARNING: function overloads are allowed, and *can* also have 2 functions with the same name/types/param counts, where the bottommost function takes precedence (it as though the earlier functions didn't exist)] [i.e. you can have multiple overloads, but some are silently discarded] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: no [note: can't have 2 functions with the same name] Go: no [note: can't have 2 functions with the same name] Java: yes (overloads) [note: function overloads are allowed, but can't have 2 functions with the same name/types/param counts] JavaScript: yes [WARNING: the bottommost function takes precedence, it as though the earlier functions didn't exist] Kotlin: yes (overloads) [note: function overloads are allowed, but can't have 2 functions with the same name/types/param counts] PHP: no [note: can't have 2 functions with the same name] Python: yes [note: the function called is the nearest function above where the call is made (i.e. the same logic as defining/calling anonymous functions)] R: yes [note: all functions are anonymous functions, assigned to variables] Ruby: yes [note: the function called is the nearest function above where the call is made (i.e. the same logic as defining/calling anonymous functions)] Rust: no [note: can't have 2 functions with the same name] Scala: yes (overloads) [note: function overloads are allowed, but can't have 2 functions with the same name/types/param counts] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes (overloads) [note: function overloads are allowed, but can't have 2 functions with the same name/types/param counts] UFL: FuncCallOmitLeading [can omit leading/middle params in function calls?][e.g. MyFunc(,2)][e.g. MyFunc(1,,3)] AutoHotkey: yes C++: no C#: no Crystal: no Excel: yes Excel VBA: yes Go: no Java: no JavaScript: no [can use (to omit a parameter): undefined] [e.g. MyFunc(undefined, 2)] Kotlin: no PHP: no Python: no R: yes Ruby: no Rust: no Scala: no SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: no UFL: FuncStatic [functions can store local static variables?][note: there are usually short/short-ish workarounds e.g. closures][e.g. increment every time the function is used] AutoHotkey: yes C++: yes C#: no Crystal: no Excel: ___ Excel VBA: yes Go: no Java: no JavaScript: no [can use: add a property to the function] Kotlin: no PHP: yes Python: no [can use: add a property to the function] R: no Ruby: no Rust: yes [note: has to be within an 'unsafe' block] Scala: no SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: no UFL: FuncSpaceBeforeParen [e.g. 'MyFunc (vArg1, vArg2)' works, in addition to 'MyFunc(vArg1, vArg2)'][e.g. functions for testing: pow, hypot, atan2, log] AutoHotkey: no [can use (AHK v2 onwards, at the start of a line): 'MyFunc (vArg)'] [note: AHK v2 added a shorthand for calling a function/method with 0 or 1 params specified, where the line starts with a function name/'object.method', e.g. 'MyFunc(vArg)'/'MyFunc vArg'/'MyFunc (vArg)' one-liners are equivalent] C++: yes C#: yes Crystal: no Excel: no [note: Excel suggests a correction to remove the space] Excel VBA: yes [note: VBA Editor autocorrects away the space] Go: yes [note: the Go Playground autocorrects away the space] Java: yes JavaScript: yes Kotlin: yes PHP: yes Python: yes R: yes Ruby: no Rust: yes Scala: yes SQL (SQLite): yes Swift: yes UFL: FuncPassName [or MethodPassName][pass function by name as a function call parameter][e.g. pass a sort comparator function, e.g. pass a function to map/reduce/filter/for each] AutoHotkey: MyFunc [note: AHK v1: "MyFunc", also: Func("MyFunc")] C++: ::MyFunc [also: MyFunc] [note: '::MyFunc' calls function if it exists, 'MyFunc' calls variable if it exists, else function if it exists] C#: MyFunc Crystal: &->myFunc [e.g. &->myFunc(Int32,Int32)] [e.g. &->oObj.myMethod(String)] [also (anonymous function): &oFunc] [note: see 'Proc' in the documentation] [also: oArray.map(&.MyFunc)] [note: longer form: oArray.map{|v|v.MyFunc}] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: "MyFunc" [e.g. Application.Run("MyFunc")] [note: Application.Run works on custom, but not built-in functions] Go: MyFunc Java: MyClass::MyFunc JavaScript: MyFunc Kotlin: ::MyFunc PHP: "MyFunc" Python: MyFunc R: MyFunc Ruby: :MyFunc [e.g. &method(:MyFunc)] [e.g. &oObj.method(:MyMethod)] [also (anonymous function): &oFunc] [also: oArray.map(&:MyFunc)] [note: longer form: oArray.map{|v|v.MyFunc}] Rust: MyFunc Scala: MyFunc SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: MyFunc UFL: (FuncCopyBuiltInDemo) [copy (a reference to/or clone) a built-in function][see also: MakeFuncMapDemoDouble/PrintCustom] AutoHotkey: oFunc := MsgBox [e.g. usage: oFunc(123)] C++: ___ C#: Func<int,int,int> oFunc = Math.Max [e.g. usage: oFunc(3,4)] [note: in C#, can't create an anonymous function with return type 'void'] Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ [note: Application.Run works on custom, but not built-in functions] [e.g. Application.Run("MyFunc")] Go: oFunc := fmt.Println [e.g. usage: oFunc(123)] Java: ___ JavaScript: oFunc = console.log [e.g. usage: oFunc(123)] Kotlin: val oFunc: (Any?)->Unit = ::println [e.g. usage: oFunc(123)] [WARNING: this example doesn't handle omitting the param] PHP: $oFunc = "var_dump" [e.g. usage: $oFunc(123)] Python: oFunc = print [e.g. usage: oFunc(123)] R: oFunc = print [e.g. usage: oFunc(123)] Ruby: oFunc = ::Kernel.instance_method(:p).bind(0) [e.g. usage: oFunc.call(123)] Rust: ___ Scala: ___ [e.g. MyPrint = println(_: Any)] [e.g. MyPrint0 = println(_: Unit)] [note: syntax for referring to a specific function overload] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: let oFunc: (_ vNum1: Int, _ vNum2: Int) -> Int = max [e.g. usage: oFunc(3,4)] UFL: FuncDefaultValue [function parameter default values][e.g. make param 2 optional in the MyAdd() examples below] AutoHotkey: MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2:=100) C++: int MyAdd(int vNum1, int vNum2=100) C#: public static int MyAdd(int vNum1, int vNum2=100) Crystal: def myAdd(vNum1, vNum2=100) Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Function MyAdd(vNum1, Optional vNum2 = 100) Go: ___ [MAJOR WARNING: Go lacks default function arguments, and it lacks function overloading, workaround: each function 'overload' needs a different name] Java: ___ [WARNING: Java lacks default function arguments, workaround: function overloading] JavaScript: function MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2=100) Kotlin: fun MyAdd(vNum1: Int, vNum2: Int=100) : Int PHP: function MyAdd($vNum1, $vNum2=100) Python: def MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2=100): R: MyAdd = function(vNum1, vNum2=100) Ruby: def MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2=100) Rust: ___ [MAJOR WARNING: Rust lacks default function arguments, and it lacks function overloading, and 'functions' via macros require using '!', workaround: each function 'overload' needs a different name] Scala: def Add(vNum1:Int, vNum2:Int=100) : Int = SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: func MyAdd(_ vNum1: Int, _ vNum2: Int = 100) -> Int UFL: FuncBindDemo [or FuncPartialDemo/FuncBoundDemo][bind a parameter to a function e.g. 'multiply' becomes 'double' (by binding 2 as the 1st param)][create an anonymous function, by modifying an existing existing function, by pre-filling one or more arguments][see also: MakeFuncReduceDemoMul] AutoHotkey: MyDouble := MyMul.Bind(2) C++: auto MyDouble = std::bind(MyMul, 2, std::placeholders::_1) C#: ___ Crystal: MyDouble = MyMul.partial(2) Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: ___ JavaScript: MyDouble = MyMul.bind(null, 2) Kotlin: ___ PHP: ___ Python: MyDouble = partial(MyMul, 2) R: ___ Ruby: MyDouble = MyMul.curry[2] Rust: ___ [also: impl: functions can be created by adding parameters to a function that uses impl] Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ UFL: FuncCountArgs [count arguments passed to a normal (non-variadic) function][note: variadic functions usually provide an array with a 'length' property/method] AutoHotkey: ___ C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ [can use (if vVar is a Variant): vIsPassed = Not IsMissing(vVar)] Go: ___ Java: ___ JavaScript: arguments.length Kotlin: ___ PHP: func_num_args() Python: ___ R: nargs() Ruby: ___ Rust: ___ Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ UFL: FuncParamPassed [or IsPassed/!IsOmitted/!IsMissing][check if a param was passed (to a normal (non-variadic) function) or whether it received the default value] AutoHotkey: ___ C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ [can use (if vVar is a Variant): vIsPassed = Not IsMissing(vVar)] Go: ___ Java: ___ JavaScript: ___ [can use: choose a default value that isn't 'undefined', compare against 'arguments[vIndex]'] [WARNING: this elided (empty) key check, works on arrays but not on 'arguments': (vKey in Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments))] Kotlin: ___ PHP: ___ [can use (0-based param index): array_key_exists($vIndex, func_get_args())] Python: ___ R: ___ [can use: vIsPassed = !missing(vVar)] Ruby: ___ [can use: MyFunc(a, b = c = "default")] [i.e. if b passed, c is nil, else both are 'default'] Rust: ___ Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ UFL: (FuncCallDynamic) [call a function dynamically (based on string containing a function name)][workaround: store function references in an array/map][see also: Array.Get/Map.Get/Object.Get/VarGetDynamic] AutoHotkey: vRet := %vFuncName%(vArg1, vArg2) C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ Excel VBA: vRet = Application.Run(vFuncName, vArg1, vArg2) Go: ___ Java: ___ JavaScript: vRet = new Function("return " + vFuncName)()(vArg1, vArg2) Kotlin: ___ PHP: $vRet = $vFuncName($vArg1, $vArg2) [also: call_user_func($vFuncName, $vArg1, $vArg2)] [also: call_user_func_array($vFuncName, [$vArg1, $vArg2])] Python: ___ [can use: vRet = globals()[vFuncName](vArg1, vArg2)] R: vRet = do.call(vFuncName, list(vArg1, vArg2)) Ruby: vRet = send(vFuncName, vArg1, vArg2) [also: vRet = oObj.send(vMtdName, vArg1, vArg2)] Rust: ___ Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ UFL: ClassPropComputed [or ClassHasComputedProps][can create computed/dynamic properties that look like standard properties e.g. 'Obj.MyProp', 'Obj->MyProp' (based on getters/setters)][for languages that lack this, 'getXXX'/'setXXX' methods are a common alternative][see also: ClassFull] AutoHotkey: yes C++: no C#: yes Crystal: yes Excel: ___ Excel VBA: yes Go: no Java: no JavaScript: yes Kotlin: yes PHP: yes Python: yes R: no Ruby: yes Rust: no Scala: yes SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: yes UFL: ClassPublic/ClassPrivate/ClassProtected [roughly speaking, public/private/protected, fields visible: inside and outside class/inside class only/inside class and inside subclasses respectively][see also: ClassDemoModifiers] AutoHotkey: [none]/[none]/[none] [default: public] [can use (to indicate a would-be private field): convention: prefix with '_'] C++: public/private/protected [default: private] [note: the modifier affects items underneath it] C#: public/private/protected [default: internal] [note: accessibility-wise, internal is between protected and private] [also: protected internal, private protected, file] Crystal: [none]/private/protected [default: public] [also: '@@' for a private class field, '@' for a private instance field, nothing for a public class constant] Excel: [none]/[none]/[none] Excel VBA: Public/Private/[none] [default: Public] Go: [none]/[none]/[none] [default: public] [note: workaround for private fields: use an interface] Java: public/private/protected [default: package-private] [WARNING: 'protected' works in an unusual way compared to most languages] [also: internal] JavaScript: [none]/(prefix)/[none] [default: public] [note: private: prefix fields/methods with '#'] Kotlin: public/private/protected [default: public] [also: internal] PHP: public/private/protected [default: public] Python: [none]/[none]/[none] [default: public] [can use (to indicate a would-be private field): convention: prefix with '_'] R: [none]/[none]/[none] [default: public] [can use (to indicate a would-be private field): a custom prefix] [note: a leading '_' is disallowed in variable/property/method names] Ruby: public/private/protected [default: public] [also: '@@' for a private class field, '@' for a private instance field, nothing for a public class constant] [note: the modifier affects items underneath it] [WARNING: to make a class method private use: private_class_method :MyMethod] Rust: pub/[none]/[none] [default: private] [note: Rust has no 'private' keyword (fields are private by default), it has a 'pub' (public) keyword, it has no 'protected' equivalent] Scala: [none]/private/protected [default: public] SQL (SQLite): ___/___/___ Swift: public/private/[none] [default: internal] [also: open, fileprivate] UFL: ClassSubclass [or ClassChild][define a subclass (child class), specify a superclass (parent class)][note: the examples below are typically the top line of a subclass definition][see also: ClassDemoModifiers] AutoHotkey: class MyChildClass extends MyClass C++: class MyChildClass: public MyClass C#: class MyChildClass : MyClass Crystal: MyChildClass < MyClass Excel: [none] Excel VBA: [none] Go: [none] [note: workaround: a child struct can contain a parent struct] Java: class MyChildClass extends MyClass JavaScript: class MyChildClass extends MyClass Kotlin: class MyChildClass : MyClass() [note: use the 'open' keyword on the parent class to allow subclasses, e.g. open class MyClass] PHP: class MyChildClass extends MyClass Python: class MyChildClass(MyClass) R: contains="MyClass" [note: use this in the setRefClass function call] Ruby: MyChildClass < MyClass Rust: [none] [note: workaround: use 'struct MyClass'/'impl MyClass' to create a class, within 'struct MyChildClass' store MyClass in a field, within 'impl MyChildClass' refer to the field in any method definitions] Scala: class MyChildClass extends MyClass SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: class MyChildClass: MyClass Section: Assign/Declare Single Variables UFL: VarDecl [declare a variable, without assigning a value] AutoHotkey: ___ [e.g. (within a function): local a] C++: int a; C#: int a; Crystal: a: Int32 Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Dim a As Integer Go: var a int Java: int a; JavaScript: var a; Kotlin: var a: Int PHP: ___ Python: ___ R: ___ [can use: vText = character()] [also: vNum = numeric()] [also (equivalent to numeric()): vNum = double()] Ruby: ___ Rust: let mut a: i32; Scala: var a: Int = _ [note: using '_' assigns the default value for that type] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: var a: Int UFL: VarDeclSetAuto [or VarDeclAssignAuto][assign variable (infer type)] AutoHotkey: vText := "abc" C++: auto vText = "abc" C#: var vText = "abc" Crystal: vText = "abc" Excel: ___ Excel VBA: vText = "abc" Go: vText := "abc" [also: var vText = "abc"] [MAJOR WARNING: if 'myvar declared and not used' then 'Go build failed.' (workaround: _ = myvar)] Java: var vText = "abc" JavaScript: vText = "abc" Kotlin: var vText = "abc" PHP: $vText = "abc" Python: vText = "abc" R: vText = "abc" Ruby: vText = "abc" Rust: let vText = "abc" [also: let mut vText = "abc"] Scala: var vText = "abc" SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: var vText = "abc" UFL: VarDeclSet [or VarDeclAssign][assign variable (specify type)][or specify type hints/type annotations] AutoHotkey: ___ C++: std::string vText = "abc" C#: string vText = "abc" [note: 'String' also works] Crystal: vText: String = "abc" Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ [note: declaration/assignment keywords: Dim/ReDim/Set] Go: var vText string = "abc" Java: String vText = "abc" JavaScript: ___ Kotlin: var vText: String = "abc" PHP: ___ Python: vText: str = "abc" R: ___ Ruby: ___ Rust: let mut vText: String = "abc".to_string() [e.g. let vNum: i32 = 123] Scala: var vText = "abc" [also: val] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: var vText: String = "abc" UFL: VarSet [or VarAssign][assign a variable (update value)] AutoHotkey: a := 1 C++: a = 1; C#: a = 1; Crystal: a = 1 Excel: ___ Excel VBA: a = 1 Go: a = 1 Java: a = 1; JavaScript: a = 1; Kotlin: a = 1 PHP: $a = 1; Python: a = 1 R: a = 1 Ruby: a = 1 Rust: a = 1; Scala: a = 1 SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: UPDATE MyTable SET v=1 WHERE k='a'] Swift: a = 1 UFL: (VarGetDynamic) [retrieve the value of a variable dynamically][workaround: use an array/map][see also: Array.Get/Map.Get/Object.Get/FuncCallDynamic] AutoHotkey: vValue := %vVarName% [also: vValue := %vVarNamePart1%%vVarNamePart2%] C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ [can use (specify a cell address dynamically): e.g. INDIRECT("A1")] [e.g. INDIRECT("A"&ROW())] Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: ___ JavaScript: ___ [can use: vValue = window[vVarName]] [also: vValue = window[vVarNamePart1 + vVarNamePart2]] Kotlin: ___ PHP: $vValue = $$vVarName [also: $vValue = ${$vVarNamePart1 . $vVarNamePart2}] Python: ___ [can use: vValue = globals()[vVarName]] [also: vValue = globals()[vVarNamePart1 + vVarNamePart2]] R: vValue = get(vVarName) [also: vValue = get(paste0(vVarNamePart1, vVarNamePart2))] Ruby: ___ Rust: ___ Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ [note: column names can't be referred to dynamically] Swift: ___ UFL: (VarSetDynamic) [set the value of a variable dynamically][workaround: use an array/map][see also: Array.Set/Map.Set/Object.Set/FuncCallDynamic] AutoHotkey: %vVarName% := vValue [also: %vVarNamePart1%%vVarNamePart2% := vValue] C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: ___ JavaScript: ___ [can use: window[vVarName] = vValue] [also: window[vVarNamePart1 + vVarNamePart2] = vValue] Kotlin: ___ PHP: $$vVarName = $vValue [also: ${$vVarNamePart1 . $vVarNamePart2} = $vValue] Python: ___ [can use: globals()[vVarName] = vValue] [also: globals()[vVarNamePart1 + vVarNamePart2] = vValue] R: assign(vVarName, vValue) [also: assign(paste0(vVarNamePart1, vVarNamePart2), vValue)] Ruby: ___ Rust: ___ Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ [note: column names can't be referred to dynamically] Swift: ___ Section: Assign/Declare Multiple Variables UFL: VarDeclMult [declare multiple variables, without assigning values] AutoHotkey: ___ [e.g. (within a function): local a, b, c] C++: int a, b, c; C#: int a, b, c; Crystal: a: Int32; b: Int32; c: Int32 Excel: ___ Excel VBA: Dim a, b, c As Integer Go: var a, b, c int Java: int a, b, c; JavaScript: var a, b, c; Kotlin: var a:Int; var b:Int; var c:Int PHP: ___ Python: ___ R: ___ [can use: a = b = c = character()] [also: a = b = c = numeric()] [also (equivalent to numeric()): a = b = c = double()] Ruby: ___ Rust: let (mut a, mut b, mut c): (i32, i32, i32); Scala: var a, b, c: Int = _ [note: using '_' assigns the default value for that type] SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: var a, b, c: Int UFL: VarDeclSetMult [or VarDeclAssignMult][declare and assign multiple variables] AutoHotkey: ___ [e.g. (within a function): local a:=1, b:=2, c:=3] C++: int a=1, b=2, c=3; C#: int a=1, b=2, c=3; [also (destructuring assignment): var (a, b, c) = (1, 2, 3);] Crystal: a: Int32 = 1; b: Int32 = 2; c: Int32 = 3 Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: var a, b, c int = 1, 2, 3 [also (type omitted): var a, b, c = 1, 2, 3] [note: destructuring assignment] Java: int a=1, b=2, c=3; JavaScript: var a=1, b=2, c=3; [also (destructuring assignment): var [a, b, c] = [1, 2, 3];] Kotlin: var a=1; var b=2; var c=3 [also: var a:Int=1; var b:Int=2; var c:Int=3] [also (destructuring assignment) (destructuring declaration): var (a, b, c) = arrayOf(1, 2, 3)] [also: var (a:Int, b:Int, c:Int) = arrayOf(1, 2, 3)] PHP: ___ Python: ___ R: ___ Ruby: ___ Rust: let (mut a, mut b, mut c): (i32, i32, i32) = (1, 2, 3); Scala: var (a, b, c) = (1, 2, 3) SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: var a=1, b=2, c=3 [also: var a:Int=1, b:Int=2, c:Int=3] [also (destructuring assignment): var (a, b, c) = (1, 2, 3)] UFL: VarSetMult [or VarAssignMult][assign multiple variables] AutoHotkey: a:=1, b:=2, c:=3 C++: a=1; b=2; c=3; [also: a=1, b=2, c=3;] C#: a=1; b=2; c=3; [also (destructuring assignment): (a, b, c) = (1, 2, 3);] Crystal: a=1; b=2; c=3 [also (destructuring assignment): a, b, c = 1, 2, 3] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: a = 1: b = 2: c = 3 Go: a, b, c = 1, 2, 3 [note: destructuring assignment] Java: a=1; b=2; c=3; JavaScript: a=1; b=2; c=3; [also: a=1, b=2, c=3;] [also (destructuring assignment): [a, b, c] = [1, 2, 3];] Kotlin: a=1; b=2; c=3 PHP: $a=1; $b=2; $c=3; [also (destructuring assignment): [$a, $b, $c] = [1, 2, 3];] Python: a=1; b=2; c=3 [also (destructuring assignment): a, b, c = 1, 2, 3] R: a=1; b=2; c=3 Ruby: a=1; b=2; c=3 [also (destructuring assignment): a, b, c = 1, 2, 3] Rust: a=1; b=2; c=3; [also (destructuring assignment): (a, b, c) = (1, 2, 3);] Scala: a=1; b=2; c=3 SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: UPDATE MyTable SET v=CASE WHEN k=1 THEN 'a' WHEN k=2 THEN 'b' WHEN k=3 THEN 'c' END WHERE k IN (1,2,3)] [also: UPDATE MyTable SET v=CASE WHEN k=1 THEN 'a' WHEN k=2 THEN 'b' WHEN k=3 THEN 'c' ELSE v END] Swift: a=1; b=2; c=3 [also (destructuring assignment): (a, b, c) = (1, 2, 3)] UFL: VarDeclSetMultSame [or VarDeclAssignMultSame][declare and assign multiple variables, to the same value][see also: VarSetAndReadIf] AutoHotkey: ___ [WARNING (only creates static variable 'a'): static a := b := c := 123] C++: ___ C#: ___ Crystal: ___ Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ [can use: var a, b, c int = 123, 123, 123] [also (type omitted): var a, b, c = 123, 123, 123] [note: destructuring assignment] Java: ___ JavaScript: var a = b = c = 123; [also (destructuring assignment): var [a, b, c] = Array(3).fill(123);] Kotlin: var (a, b, c) = IntArray(3){123} [also: var (a, b, c) = (123, 123, 123)] [note (both): destructuring assignment (destructuring declaration)] [also: var (a:Int, b:Int, c:Int) = IntArray(3){123}] [also: var (a:Int, b:Int, c:Int) = arrayOf(123, 123, 123)] PHP: ___ Python: ___ R: ___ Ruby: ___ Rust: let [mut a, mut b, mut c] = [123; 3]; [note: destructuring assignment] Scala: var a, b, c = 123 SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ [can use: var (a, b, c) = (123, 123, 123)] [note: destructuring assignment] UFL: VarSetMultSame [or VarAssignMultSame][assign multiple variables, to the same value][see also: VarSetAndReadIf] AutoHotkey: a := b := c := 123 C++: a = b = c = 123; C#: a = b = c = 123; Crystal: a = b = c = 123 [also (destructuring assignment): a, b, c = Array.new(3, 123)] Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ [can use: a, b, c = 123, 123, 123] [note: destructuring assignment] Java: a = b = c = 123; JavaScript: a = b = c = 123; [also (destructuring assignment): [a, b, c] = Array(3).fill(123);] Kotlin: ___ [note: can do destructuring declaration, but not destructuring assignment] PHP: $a = $b = $c = 123; [also (destructuring assignment): [$a, $b, $c] = array_fill(0, 3, 123);] Python: a = b = c = 123 [also (destructuring assignment): a, b, c = [123] * 3] R: a = b = c = 123 Ruby: a = b = c = 123 [also (destructuring assignment): a, b, c = Array.new(3, 123)] Rust: [a, b, c] = [123; 3]; [note: destructuring assignment] Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ [can use: UPDATE MyTable SET v='abc' WHERE k IN(1,2,3)] [also (update the entire column): UPDATE MyTable SET v='abc'] Swift: ___ [can use: (a, b, c) = (123, 123, 123)] [note: destructuring assignment] UFL: VarSetAndReadIf [or VarAssignAndReadIf][update value, and read that new value, in a single statement, in an if-statement][note: it is generally best to avoid such code since 'if (a = b)' is usually a typo, with 'if (a == b)' being intended, however, sometimes code is much shorter/cleaner if this idiom is used (e.g. multiple such statements in one place)][see also: VarSetMultSame/VarDeclSetMultSame] AutoHotkey: if (vBool := true) C++: if (vBool = true) C#: if (vBool = true) Crystal: if (vBool = true) Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: ___ Java: if (vBool = true) JavaScript: if (vBool = true) Kotlin: ___ PHP: if ($vBool = true) Python: if (vBool := True): [note: doesn't work: if (vBool = True):] [note: this is the source of the walrus operator debates] R: ___ Ruby: if (vBool = true) Rust: ___ Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ Section: File Extensions UFL: FileExtension [file extension] AutoHotkey: ahk C++: cpp [also: c/cxx/cc] [also (header files): h/hpp/hxx/hh] C#: cs Crystal: cr Excel: xlsx [also (older Excel versions): xls] Excel VBA: xlsm [also (older Excel versions): xls] Go: go Java: java JavaScript: js [also (related extensions): htm/html/css] Kotlin: kt PHP: php Python: py R: r Ruby: rb Rust: rs Scala: scala, sc SQL (SQLite): sqlite, sqlite3, db, db3, s3db, sl3 Swift: swift UFL: (ArtworkLogo) [programming language logo] AutoHotkey: white 'H', green background C++: white 'C++', blue hexagon C#: white 'C#', purple hexagon Crystal: black hexagon, white equilateral triangle Excel: white 'X', green background Excel VBA: 4 boxes, orange/blue/yellow/purple (VBA logo) Go: light blue 'GO', with light blue speed marks on left Java: blue cup of coffee, orange steam JavaScript: black 'JS', yellow background Kotlin: stylised purple 'K' [note: previous logo: stylised K with blue/purple, and orange(/magenta) stripe] PHP: black 'php', purple background (purple oval) Python: blue snake, yellow snake R: blue 'R', grey unfilled oval Ruby: red ruby (shape is similar to (not necessarily identical to) an octagon diamond) Rust: black 'R' inside a cog Scala: red spiral staircase, 3 tiers (based on staircase at the EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland) SQL (SQLite): dark blue quill, most of a blue square Swift: white bird facing bottom-right corner, orange background UFL: (ArtworkMascot) [programming language mascot] AutoHotkey: ___ C++: ___ [note: not Keith (brown with lighter bits, rat)] C#: ___ [note: formerly Andy (human, C-shaped tie, '#' pocket)] [also: DotNet Bot (purple, spherical, robot)] Crystal: crow (black) Excel: ___ Excel VBA: ___ Go: Go Gopher (light blue) Java: Duke (black head/arms, white body, round red nose, shaped like an upside-down tooth) JavaScript: ___ Kotlin: Kodee (purple, robot, cat-like, screen-like) PHP: ElePHPant (purple, elephant) Python: ___ R: ___ Ruby: ___ Rust: Ferris (red/orange, crab) Scala: ___ SQL (SQLite): ___ Swift: ___ Section: Concatenate Strings/Integers UFL: StrIntConcat [can concatenate string and int directly?] AutoHotkey: yes [e.g. vText vNum] [e.g. vNum vText] [also: vText . vNum] [also: vNum . vText] C++: no [can use: vText + std::to_string(vNum)] [can use: std::to_string(vNum) + vText] C#: yes [e.g. vText + vNum] [e.g. vNum + vText] Crystal: no [can use: vText + vNum.to_s] [also: vNum.to_s + vText] Excel: yes [e.g. =A1&B1] [e.g. =B1&A1] Excel VBA: yes [e.g. vText & vNum] [e.g. vNum & vText] Go: no [can use: vText + strconv.Itoa(vNum)] [also: strconv.Itoa(vNum) + vText] [requires: import "strconv"] Java: yes [e.g. vText + vNum] [e.g. vNum + vText] JavaScript: yes [e.g. vText + vNum] [e.g. vNum + vText] Kotlin: depends on order [e.g. vText + vNum] [can use: "" + vNum + vText] PHP: yes [e.g. $vText . $vNum] [e.g. $vNum . $vText] Python: no [can use: vText + str(vNum)] [also: str(vNum) + vText] R: yes [e.g. paste0(vText, vNum)] [e.g. paste0(vNum, vText)] Ruby: no [can use: vText + vNum.to_s] [also: vNum.to_s + vText] Rust: no [can use: format!("{}{}", vText, vNum)] [can use: format!("{}{}", vNum, vText)] Scala: yes [e.g. vText + vNum] [e.g. s"$vNum$vText"] [e.g. s"${vNum}${vText}"] [deprecated: vNum + vText] SQL (SQLite): yes [e.g. MyColText || MyColNum] [e.g. MyColNum || MyColText] Swift: no [can use: vText + String(vNum)] [can use: String(vNum) + vText] UFL: PrintKeyValueConcat [or PrintConcat/PrintTwoValuesConcat][note: will work for (at least) strings and ints][see also: StrIntConcat/Array.PrintWithIndex/Map.Print] AutoHotkey: MsgBox(vKey ": " vValue) C++: std::cout << vKey << ": " << vValue << "\n" [WARNING: std::to_string fails on std::string itself] C#: Console.WriteLine(vKey + ": " + vValue) [also: Console.WriteLine(oEntry.Key + ": " + oEntry.Value)] Crystal: p vKey.to_s + ": " + vValue.to_s Excel: =A1&": "&B1 Excel VBA: Debug.Print vKey & ": " & vValue Go: fmt.Printf("%v: %v\n", vKey, vValue) Java: System.out.println(vKey + ": " + vValue) [also: System.out.println(oEntry.getKey() + ": " + oEntry.getValue())] JavaScript: console.log(vKey + ": " + vValue) Kotlin: println("" + vKey + ": " + vValue) PHP: var_dump($vKey . ": " . $vValue) Python: print(str(vKey) + ": " + str(vValue)) R: print(paste(vKey, vValue, sep=": ")) [also: print(paste(vKey, oMap[[vKey]], sep=": "))] Ruby: p vKey.to_s + ": " + vValue.to_s Rust: println!("{}: {}", vKey, vValue) Scala: println(s"$vKey: $vValue") [also: println(s"${vKey}: ${vValue}")] SQL (SQLite): SELECT vKey || ': ' || vValue Swift: print(String(vKey) + ": " + String(vValue)) [also: print(String(describing:vKey) + ": " + String(describing:vValue))] UFL: PrintKeyValueAsPair [or PrintAsPair/PrintAsTuple/PrintTwoValues][note: will work for (at least) strings and ints][see also: StrIntConcat/Array.PrintWithIndex/Map.Print/Tuple.NewDemo/MakeFuncForEachWithIndexDemoPrintIntStr] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: MsgBox(vKey ": " vValue)] C++: std::apply([](auto&&... oArgs) {((std::cout << oArgs << ", "), ...);}, std::make_pair(vKey, vValue)) [note: prints trailing separator] [afterwards: std::cout << "\n"] [also: can replace 'std::make_pair' with 'std::make_tuple'] [requires (pair): #include <utility>] [requires (tuple): #include <tuple>] C#: Console.WriteLine((vKey, vValue)) [also: Console.WriteLine(new KeyValuePair<string,int>(vKey, vValue))] [requires (KeyValuePair): using System.Collections.Generic] Crystal: p ({vKey, vValue}) Excel: ___ [can use: =A1&": "&B1] Excel VBA: ___ [can use: Debug.Print vKey & ": " & vValue] Go: fmt.Println(vKey, vValue) [also: fmt.Println([...]interface{}{vKey, vValue})] Java: System.out.println(List.of(vKey, vValue)) [also: System.out.println(vKey + ": " + vValue)] [also: System.out.println(Map.entry(vKey, vValue))] [also: System.out.println(new AbstractMap.SimpleEntry<>(vKey, vValue))] [requires (all): import java.util.*] JavaScript: console.log([vKey, vValue]) [also: console.log(vKey, vValue)] [also: console.log(vKey + ": " + vValue)] Kotlin: println(Pair(vKey, vValue)) [also: println(listOf(vKey, vValue))] PHP: var_dump([$vKey, $vValue]) [also: var_dump($vKey . ": " . $vValue)] Python: print((vKey, vValue)) [also: print([vKey, vValue])] [also: print(vKey, vValue)] R: print(list(vKey, vValue)) [also: print(c(vKey, vValue))] [note: list(), unlike c(), preserves types, but uses multiple lines] [also: print(unlist(list(vKey, vValue)))] Ruby: p [vKey, vValue] Rust: println!("{:?}", (vKey, vValue)) Scala: println((vKey, vValue)) SQL (SQLite): SELECT vKey, vValue Swift: print((vKey, vValue)) [also: print(vKey, vValue)] UFL: PrintMultDemo [or PrintWithNewLineMultDemo/PrintThreeValuesDemo][print multiple values of different types on one line] AutoHotkey: ___ [can use: MsgBox(Format("{} {} {}", "a", 1, 1.1))] C++: ___ [can use: std::apply([](auto&&... oArgs) {((std::cout << oArgs << ", "), ...);}, std::make_tuple("a", 1, 1.1))] [note: prints trailing separator] [afterwards: std::cout << "\n"] [requires (tuple): #include <tuple>] C#: Console.WriteLine(("a", 1, 1.1)) Crystal: p ({"a", 1, 1.1}) [also (prints each on a separate line): p "a", 1, 1.1] Excel: ___ [can use: =A1&" "&B1&" "&C1] Excel VBA: Debug.Print Join(Array("a", 1, 1.1), " ") Go: fmt.Println("a", 1, 1.1) Java: System.out.println(List.of("a", 1, 1.1)) [requires: import java.util.*] JavaScript: console.log("a", 1, 1.1) Kotlin: println(listOf("a", 1, 1.1)) PHP: var_dump(["a", 1, 1.1]) [also: var_dump(implode(" ", ["a", 1, 1.1]))] [also (prints each on a separate line): var_dump("a", 1, 1.1)] Python: print("a", 1, 1.1) R: print(c("a", 1, 1.1)) [also: print(unlist(list("a", 1, 1.1)))] [also (prints across multiple lines, preserves types): print(list("a", 1, 1.1))] Ruby: p ["a", 1, 1.1] [also (prints each on a separate line): p "a", 1, 1.1] Rust: println!("{:?}", ("a", 1, 1.1)) [also: println!("{} {} {}", "a", 1, 1.1)] Scala: println(("a", 1, 1.1)) SQL (SQLite): SELECT 'a', 1, 1.1 Swift: print("a", 1, 1.1) Section: Multi-Line Strings UFL: StrMultiLineDemo [multi-line strings][WARNING: some approaches crop whitespace (e.g. all whitespace, e.g. some whitespace based on indentation)]

C: concatenate operator
J: join method/function
X: other

[AutoHotkey]

vTextC1 := "LINE 1`n"
. "LINE 2`n"
. "LINE 3"

vTextC2 := "LINE 1`n" .
"LINE 2`n" .
"LINE 3"

vTextX1 := " ;continuation section
(
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
)"

vTextX2 := " ;continuation section
(Join`r`n
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
)"

MsgBox(vTextC1)
MsgBox(vTextC2)
MsgBox(vTextX1)
MsgBox(vTextX2)

[C++]

//doesn't work:
//std::string vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
//+ "LINE 2\n"
//+ "LINE 3";

//doesn't work:
//std::string vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" +
//"LINE 2\n" +
//"LINE 3";

//string literal concatenation (no operators needed):
std::string vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
"LINE 2\n"
"LINE 3";

std::string vTextX1 = "LINE 1\n\
LINE 2\n\
LINE 3";

std::string vTextX2 = R"(LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3)";

std::cout << vTextC1 << "\n";
std::cout << vTextX1 << "\n";
std::cout << vTextX2 << "\n";

[C#]

string vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
+ "LINE 2\n"
+ "LINE 3";

string vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3";

string vTextJ1 = String.Join("\n"
, "LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
);

string vTextJ2 = String.Join("\n",
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
);

string vTextX1 = @"LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3";

Console.WriteLine(vTextC1);
Console.WriteLine(vTextC2);
Console.WriteLine(vTextJ1);
Console.WriteLine(vTextJ2);
Console.WriteLine(vTextX1);

[Crystal]

vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3"

vTextJ1 = [
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
].join("\n")

vTextX1 = "LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3"

vTextX2 = "LINE 1\n\
LINE 2\n\
LINE 3"

vTextX3 = "LINE 1\n" \
"LINE 2\n" \
"LINE 3"

vTextX4 = <<-MYTEXT
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
MYTEXT

vTextX5 = %q(LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
)

puts vTextC1
puts vTextJ1
puts vTextX1
puts vTextX2
puts vTextX3
puts vTextX4
puts vTextX5

[Excel]

[Excel VBA]

vTextC1 = "LINE 1" & vbLf & _
"LINE 2" & vbLf & _
"LINE 3"

vTextC2 = "LINE 1" & vbLf _
& "LINE 2" & vbLf _
& "LINE 3"

Debug.Print vTextC1
Debug.Print vTextC2

[Go]

	//WARNING: Golang online compiler auto-indents code:
	//WARNING: Golang online compiler sometimes enforces a space after the comment symbol ('//'):

	vTextC1 := "LINE 1\n" +
		"LINE 2\n" +
		"LINE 3"

	vTextJ1 := strings.Join([]string{"LINE 1",
		"LINE 2",
		"LINE 3"},
		"\n")

	//WARNING: preserves leading whitespace:
	vTextX1 := `LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
`

	fmt.Println(vTextC1)
	fmt.Println(vTextJ1)
	fmt.Println(vTextX1)

[Java]

String vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
+ "LINE 2\n"
+ "LINE 3";

String vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3";

String vTextJ1 = String.join("\n"
, "LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
);

String vTextJ2 = String.join("\n",
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
);

String vTextX1 = """
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3""";

System.out.println(vTextC1);
System.out.println(vTextC2);
System.out.println(vTextJ1);
System.out.println(vTextJ2);
System.out.println(vTextX1);

[JavaScript]

vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
+ "LINE 2\n"
+ "LINE 3";

vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3";

vTextJ1 = ["LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
].join("\n")

vTextJ2 = [
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
].join("\n")

vTextX1 = "LINE 1\n\
LINE 2\n\
LINE 3";

vTextX2 = `LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3`;

console.log(vTextC1);
console.log(vTextC2);
console.log(vTextJ1);
console.log(vTextJ2);
console.log(vTextX1);
console.log(vTextX2);

[Kotlin]

//doesn't work:
//vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
//+ "LINE 2\n"
//+ "LINE 3"

var vTextC1 = ("LINE 1\n"
+ "LINE 2\n"
+ "LINE 3")

var vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3"

var vTextJ1 = arrayOf("LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
).joinToString("\n")

var vTextJ2 = arrayOf(
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
).joinToString("\n")

var vTextX1 = """LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3"""

println(vTextC1)
println(vTextC2)
println(vTextJ1)
println(vTextJ2)
println(vTextX1)

[PHP]

$vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
. "LINE 2\n"
. "LINE 3";

$vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" .
"LINE 2\n" .
"LINE 3";

$vTextJ1 = implode("\n", ["LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
]);

$vTextJ2 = implode("\n", [
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
]);

$vTextX1 = "LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3";
$vTextX1 = str_replace("\r", "", $vTextX1);

//e.g. Nowdoc string:
$vTextX2 = <<<'END'
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
END;

echo $vTextC1 . "\n";
echo $vTextC2 . "\n";
echo $vTextJ1 . "\n";
echo $vTextJ2 . "\n";
echo $vTextX1 . "\n";
echo $vTextX2 . "\n";

[Python]

#doesn't work:
#vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
#+ "LINE 2\n"
#+ "LINE 3"

#doesn't work:
#vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" +
#"LINE 2\n" +
#"LINE 3"

vTextC1 = ("LINE 1\n"
+ "LINE 2\n"
+ "LINE 3")

vTextC2 = ("LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3")

vTextJ1 = "\n".join(["LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
])

vTextJ2 = "\n".join([
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
])

vTextX1 = "LINE 1\n" \
+ "LINE 2\n" \
+ "LINE 3"

vTextX2 = """LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3"""

print(vTextC1)
print(vTextC2)
print(vTextJ1)
print(vTextJ2)
print(vTextX1)
print(vTextX2)

[R]

vTextJ1 = paste("LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
, sep="\n")

vTextJ2 = paste("LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3",
sep="\n")

vTextX1 = "LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3"

cat(vTextJ1); cat("\n")
cat(vTextJ2); cat("\n")
cat(vTextX1); cat("\n")

[Ruby]

vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3"

vTextJ1 = [
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
].join("\n")

vTextX1 = "LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3"

vTextX2 = "LINE 1\n\
LINE 2\n\
LINE 3"

vTextX3 = "LINE 1\n" \
"LINE 2\n" \
"LINE 3"

vTextX4 = <<-MYTEXT
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
MYTEXT

vTextX5 = <<~MYTEXT
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
MYTEXT

vTextX6 = %q(LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
)

puts vTextC1
puts vTextJ1
puts vTextX1
puts vTextX2
puts vTextX3
puts vTextX4
puts vTextX5
puts vTextX6

[Rust]

let vTextX1 = "LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3";

let vTextX2 = "LINE 1\n\
LINE 2\n\
LINE 3";

let vTextX3 = concat!("LINE 1\n"
, "LINE 2\n"
, "LINE 3"
);

println!("{}", vTextX1);
println!("{}", vTextX2);
println!("{}", vTextX3);

[Scala]

var vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
+ "LINE 2\n"
+ "LINE 3"

var vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3"

var vTextJ1 = String.join("\n"
, "LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
)

var vTextJ2 = String.join("\n",
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
)

var vTextX1 = """
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3"""

println(vTextC1)
println(vTextC2)
println(vTextJ1)
println(vTextJ2)
println(vTextX1)

[SQL (SQLite)]

[Swift]

var vTextC1 = "LINE 1\n"
+ "LINE 2\n"
+ "LINE 3"

var vTextC2 = "LINE 1\n" +
"LINE 2\n" +
"LINE 3"

var vTextJ1 = ["LINE 1"
, "LINE 2"
, "LINE 3"
].joined(separator:"\n")

var vTextJ2 = [
"LINE 1",
"LINE 2",
"LINE 3"
].joined(separator:"\n")

var vTextX1 = """
LINE 1
LINE 2
LINE 3
"""

print(vTextC1)
print(vTextC2)
print(vTextJ1)
print(vTextJ2)
print(vTextX1)

Section: Sleep/Tick Counts (benchmark tests) UFL: BenchmarkTestDemo [benchmark test][sleep and compare tick counts][see also: TickCount]

[AutoHotkey]

vTick1 := A_TickCount
Sleep(123)
vTick2 := A_TickCount
vDurationMSec := vTick2 - vTick1
MsgBox(vDurationMSec . " msec")

[C++]

#include <iostream>
#include <chrono>
#include <thread>

auto vTick1 = std::chrono::high_resolution_clock::now();
std::this_thread::sleep_for(std::chrono::milliseconds(123));
auto vTick2 = std::chrono::high_resolution_clock::now();
auto vDurationMSec = std::chrono::duration_cast<std::chrono::milliseconds>(vTick2-vTick1).count();
std::cout << std::to_string(vDurationMSec) + " msec" << "\n";

[C#]

var vTick1 = DateTime.Now;
System.Threading.Thread.Sleep(123);
var vTick2 = DateTime.Now;
var vDurationMSec = (vTick2-vTick1).TotalMilliseconds;
Console.WriteLine(vDurationMSec + " msec");

[Crystal]

oTick1 = Time.monotonic
sleep 123/1000
oTick2 = Time.monotonic
vDurationMSec = (oTick2-oTick1).total_milliseconds
puts vDurationMSec.to_s + " msec"

[Excel]

[Excel VBA]

#If VBA7 Then
Public Declare PtrSafe Sub Sleep Lib "kernel32" (ByVal dwMilliseconds As LongPtr)
#Else
Public Declare Sub Sleep Lib "kernel32" (ByVal dwMilliseconds As Long)
#End If

vTick1 = Timer
'Application.Wait (Now + TimeValue("0:00:01"))
Sleep (123) 'Winapi function kernel32\Sleep, more accurate than Application.Wait
vTick2 = Timer
vDurationMSec = Int((vTick2 - vTick1) * 1000)
Debug.Print (vDurationMSec & " msec")

[Go]

//requires: import "time"
//requires: import "strconv"

oTime1 := time.Now()
time.Sleep(123 * time.Millisecond)
oTime2 := time.Now()
vDurationMSec := oTime2.Sub(oTime1).Milliseconds()
fmt.Println(strconv.Itoa(int(vDurationMSec)) + " msec")

[Java]

var vTick1 = System.currentTimeMillis();
try
{
	Thread.sleep(123);
}
catch (Exception e)
{
}
var vTick2 = System.currentTimeMillis();
var vDurationMSec = vTick2 - vTick1;
System.out.println(vDurationMSec + " msec");

[JavaScript]

vTick1 = performance.now();
var vDate = 123 + new Date().getTime();
while (new Date() < vDate)
	{} //noop
vTick2 = performance.now();
vDurationMSec = vTick2 - vTick1;
console.log(vDurationMSec + " msec");

[Kotlin]

var vTick1 = System.currentTimeMillis()
Thread.sleep(123)
var vTick2 = System.currentTimeMillis()
var vDurationMSec = vTick2 - vTick1
println("" + vDurationMSec + " msec")

[PHP]

$vTick1 = microtime(true);
usleep(123*1000); //note: usleep uses microseconds (1000 microseconds = 1 millisecond)
$vTick2 = microtime(true);
$vDurationMSec = intval(($vTick2-$vTick1)*1000);
var_export($vDurationMSec . " msec");

[Python]

import time

vTick1 = time.time()
time.sleep(123/1000)
vTick2 = time.time()
vDurationMSec = int((vTick2-vTick1)*1000)
print(str(vDurationMSec) + " msec")

[R]

oTime1 = Sys.time()
Sys.sleep(123/1000)
oTime2 = Sys.time()
vDurationMSec = as.numeric(oTime2-oTime1) * 1000
print(sprintf("%0.4f msec", vDurationMSec))
#print(paste(vDurationMSec, "msec")) #for more decimal places

[Ruby]

oTick1 = Time.now
sleep 123/1000.0
oTick2 = Time.now
vDurationMSec = (oTick2-oTick1) * 1000
puts vDurationMSec.to_s + " msec"

[Rust]

use std::{thread, time};

let oDate1 = time::SystemTime::now();
thread::sleep(time::Duration::from_millis(123));
let oDate2 = time::SystemTime::now();
let vDurationMSec = oDate2.duration_since(oDate1).unwrap().as_millis();
println!("{}{}", vDurationMSec, " msec");

[Scala]

var vTick1 = System.currentTimeMillis()
Thread.sleep(123)
var vTick2 = System.currentTimeMillis()
var vDurationMSec = vTick2 - vTick1
println(s"$vDurationMSec msec")
//println(s"${vDurationMSec} msec") //equivalent to line above

[SQL (SQLite)]

[Swift]

import Foundation

var oTick1 = DispatchTime.now()
usleep(123*1000)
var oTick2 = DispatchTime.now()
var vDurationNSec = oTick2.uptimeNanoseconds - oTick1.uptimeNanoseconds
var vDurationMSec = vDurationNSec / 1000000
print(String(vDurationMSec) + " msec")

Function Examples: Add/Sum UFL: FuncDemoAdd/FuncDemoSum [custom 'MyAdd' and 'MySum' functions][and 'MyAddAnon' anonymous function][and print example values][see also: OpSpreadReceiveDemo]

[AutoHotkey]

MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2)
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2
}
;MyAddAnon := (vNum1, vNum2) => vNum1 + vNum2
;MsgBox(MyAdd(1,2))
;MsgBox(MyAddAnon(1,2))

MySum(oParams*)
{
	vSum := 0
	for _, vValue in oParams
		vSum += vValue
	return vSum
}

[C++]

int MyAdd(int vNum1, int vNum2)
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2;
}
//auto MyAddAnon = [](int vNum1, int vNum2) {return vNum1+vNum2;};
//std::cout << MyAdd(1,2) << "\n";
//std::cout << MyAddAnon(1,2) << "\n";

//WARNING: C++ doesn't have variadic functions, so accept a vector instead:
int MySum(std::vector<int> oVec)
{
	int vSum = 0;
	for (const auto& vValue : oVec)
		vSum += vValue;
	return vSum;
}

[C#]

public static int MyAdd(int vNum1, int vNum2)
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2;
}
//Func<int,int,int> MyAddAnon = (vNum1, vNum2) => vNum1 + vNum2;
//Console.WriteLine(MyAdd(1,2));
//Console.WriteLine(MyAddAnon(1,2));

public static int MySum(params int[] oParams)
{
	int vSum = 0;
	for (var i=0; i<oParams.Length; i++)
		vSum += oParams[i];
	return vSum;
}

[Crystal]

#MAJOR WARNING: Crystal forces function names (method names) to start with a lower-case letter:
#WARNING: if try to define a function whose name starts with an upper-case letter, the error message is: 'Error: unexpected token: "("'

def myAdd(vNum1, vNum2)
	return vNum1 + vNum2
end
#MyAddAnon = ->(vNum1: Int32,vNum2: Int32) {vNum1+vNum2}
#p myAdd(1,2)
#p MyAddAnon.call(1,2)

def mySum(*oParams)
	vSum = 0
	oParams.each do |vValue|
		vSum += vValue
	end
	return vSum
end

[Excel]

'note: this can be used in sheet formulae (it accepts 2 parameters):
'e.g. =MyAdd(A1,A2)
Function MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2)
	MyAdd = vNum1 + vNum2
End Function

'note: this can be used in sheet formulae (it accepts 1 parameter, which can be a range) (it does not use ParamArray):
'e.g. =MySum(A1:A10)
Function MySum(oParams)
	vSum = 0
	For Each vValue In oParams
		vSum = vSum + vValue
	Next
	MySum = vSum
End Function

[Excel VBA]

Function MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2)
	MyAdd = vNum1 + vNum2
End Function
'Debug.Print MyAdd(1,2)

Function MySum(ParamArray oParams())
	vSum = 0
	For Each vValue In oParams
		vSum = vSum + vValue
	Next
	MySum = vSum
End Function

[Go]

// MAJOR WARNING: the Go Playground demands K&R style indentation:
// WARNING: the Go Playground may add whitespace before and after '//':

func MyAdd(vNum1 int, vNum2 int) int {
	return vNum1 + vNum2
}
//MyAddAnon := func(vNum1, vNum2 int) int { return vNum1 + vNum2 }
//fmt.Println(MyAdd(1,2))
//fmt.Println(MyAddAnon(1,2))

func MySum(oParams ...int) int {
	vSum := 0
	for _, vValue := range oParams {
		vSum += vValue
	}
	return vSum
}

[Java]

static int MyAdd(int vNum1, int vNum2)
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2;
}
//import java.util.function.*;
//BinaryOperator<Integer> MyAddAnon = (vNum1, vNum2) -> vNum1 + vNum2;
//System.out.println(MyAdd(1,2));
//System.out.println(MyAddAnon.apply(1,2));

static int MySum(int... oParams)
{
	int vSum = 0;
	for (var i=0; i<oParams.length; i++)
		vSum += oParams[i];
	return vSum;
}

[JavaScript]

function MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2)
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2;
}
//MyAddAnon = (vNum1, vNum2) => vNum1 + vNum2;
//console.log(MyAdd(1,2));
//console.log(MyAddAnon(1,2));

function MySum(...oParams)
{
	vSum = 0;
	for (var i=0; i<oParams.length; i++)
		vSum += oParams[i];
	return vSum;
}

[Kotlin]

fun MyAdd(vNum1: Int, vNum2: Int) : Int
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2
}
//var MyAddAnon = {vNum1:Int, vNum2:Int -> vNum1+vNum2}
//println(MyAdd(1,2))
//println(MyAddAnon(1,2))

fun MySum(vararg oParams: Int) : Int
{
	var vSum = 0
	for (i in 0 until oParams.size)
		vSum += oParams[i]
	return vSum
}

[PHP]

function MyAdd($vNum1, $vNum2)
{
	return $vNum1 + $vNum2;
}
//$MyAddAnon = fn($vNum1, $vNum2) => $vNum1 + $vNum2;
//var_dump(MyAdd(1,2));
//var_dump($MyAddAnon(1,2));

function MySum(...$oParams)
{
	$vSum = 0;
	foreach($oParams as $vValue)
		$vSum += $vValue;
	return $vSum;
}

[Python]

def MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2):
	return vNum1 + vNum2
#MyAddAnon = lambda vNum1, vNum2 : vNum1 + vNum2
#print(MyAdd(1,2))
#print(MyAddAnon(1,2))

def MySum(*oParams):
	vSum = 0
	for vValue in oParams:
		vSum += vValue
	return vSum

[R]

#note: this is creating an anonymous function, storing it as a variable:
#note: both approaches are doing this, 'function' and '\':
#note: in R, '<-' is often used for assignment, this website consistently uses '=':

MyAdd = function(vNum1, vNum2)
{
	return (vNum1 + vNum2)
}
#MyAddAnon = \(vNum1,vNum2) vNum1+vNum2
#print(MyAdd(1,2))
#print(MyAddAnon(1,2))

MySum = function(...)
{
	oParams = list(...)
	vSum = 0
	for (vValue in oParams)
		vSum = vSum + vValue
	return (vSum)
}

[Ruby]

def MyAdd(vNum1, vNum2)
	return vNum1 + vNum2
end
#MyAddAnon = ->(vNum1,vNum2) {vNum1+vNum2}
#p MyAdd(1,2)
#p MyAddAnon.call(1,2)

def MySum(*oParams)
	vSum = 0
	for vValue in oParams
		vSum += vValue
	end
	return vSum
end

[Rust]

fn MyAdd(vNum1: i32, vNum2: i32) -> i32
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2;
}
//fn MyAddAnon (vNum1:i32, vNum2:i32) -> i32{vNum1+vNum2}
//println!("{}", MyAdd(1,2));
//println!("{}", MyAddAnon(1,2));

//note: using implicit return syntax:
//'The final expression in the function will be used as [the] return value.'
fn MyAddAlt(vNum1: i32, vNum2: i32) -> i32
{
	vNum1 + vNum2
}

//WARNING: Rust doesn't have variadic functions, so accept a vector instead:
fn MySum(oVec: Vec<i32>) -> i32
{
	let mut vSum = 0;
	for vValue in oVec
	{
		vSum += vValue
	}
	return vSum;
}

[Scala]

def MyAdd(vNum1:Int, vNum2:Int) : Int =
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2
}
//def MyAddAnon(vNum1:Int, vNum2:Int): Int = vNum1 + vNum2
//println(MyAdd(1,2))
//println(MyAddAnon(1,2))

def MySum(oParams: Int*) : Int =
{
	var vSum = 0
	for(vValue <- oParams)
		vSum += vValue
	return vSum
}

[SQL (SQLite)]

[Swift]

func MyAdd(_ vNum1: Int, _ vNum2: Int) -> Int
{
	return vNum1 + vNum2
}
//var MyAddAnon: (_ vNum1:Int, _ vNum2:Int) -> Int = {vNum1,vNum2 in vNum1+vNum2}
//print(MyAdd(1,2))
//print(MyAddAnon(1,2))

func MySum(_ oParams: Int...) -> Int
{
	var vSum = 0
	for vValue in oParams
	{
		vSum += vValue
	}
	return vSum
}

Function Examples: FillParamVar/FillParamFixed UFL: FuncDemoFillParamVar/FuncDemoFillParamFixed [custom 'MulVar'/'MulFixed'/'MulMake' anonymous functions][demonstrates filling a function (or code equivalent to a function) (e.g. 'Mul': a * b) with a parameter that is either fixed (e.g. 'MulFixed'), or with a parameter that can be varied after the function is created (e.g. 'MulVar')][WARNING: 'MulVar' may be something that a user accidentally creates, when 'MulFixed' was intended, so the 'MulVar' code can be seen either as a how-to example or as a gotcha to avoid]

[AutoHotkey]

;MulVar:
vMult := 5
oFuncMulVar := vNum => vMult * vNum
MsgBox(oFuncMulVar(10)) ;50
vMult := 10
MsgBox(oFuncMulVar(10)) ;100

;MulFixed:
oFuncMulMake := vMult => (vNum => vMult * vNum)
vMult := 5
oFuncMulFixed := oFuncMulMake(vMult)
MsgBox(oFuncMulFixed(10)) ;50
vMult := 10
MsgBox(oFuncMulFixed(10)) ;50

[C++]

//MulVar:
int vMult = 5;
auto oFuncMulVar = [&vMult](int vNum) {return vMult * vNum;};
std::cout << oFuncMulVar(10) << "\n"; //50
vMult = 10;
std::cout << oFuncMulVar(10) << "\n"; //100

//MulFixed:
auto oFuncMulMake = [](int vMult) {return [vMult](int vNum) {return vMult * vNum;};};
int vMult = 5;
auto oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult);
std::cout << oFuncMulFixed(10) << "\n"; //50
vMult = 10;
std::cout << oFuncMulFixed(10) << "\n"; //50

[C#]

//MulVar:
int vMult = 5;
Func<int,int> oFuncMulVar = vNum => vMult * vNum;
Console.WriteLine(oFuncMulVar(10)); //50
vMult = 10;
Console.WriteLine(oFuncMulVar(10)); //100

//MulFixed:
Func<int,Func<int,int>> oFuncMulMake = vMult => (vNum => vMult * vNum);
int vMult = 5;
var oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult);
Console.WriteLine(oFuncMulFixed(10)); //50
vMult = 10;
Console.WriteLine(oFuncMulFixed(10)); //50

[Crystal]

#MulVar:
vMult = 5
oFuncMulVar = ->(vNum: Int32) {vMult * vNum}
p oFuncMulVar.call(10) #50
vMult = 10
p oFuncMulVar.call(10) #100

#MulFixed:
oFuncMulMake = ->(vMult: Int32) {->(vNum: Int32) {vMult * vNum}}
vMult = 5
oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake.call(vMult)
p oFuncMulFixed.call(10) #50
vMult = 10
p oFuncMulFixed.call(10) #50

[Excel]

[Excel VBA]

[Go]

//MulVar:
vMult := 5
oFuncMulVar := func(vNum int) int { return vMult * vNum }
fmt.Println(oFuncMulVar(10)) //50
vMult = 10
fmt.Println(oFuncMulVar(10)) //100

//MulFixed:
oFuncMulMake := func(vMult int) func(int) int { return func(vNum int) int { return vMult * vNum } }
vMult := 5
oFuncMulFixed := oFuncMulMake(vMult)
fmt.Println(oFuncMulFixed(10)) //50
vMult = 10
fmt.Println(oFuncMulFixed(10)) //50

[Java]

//requires: import java.util.function.*;

//MulVar:
//note: we use an int array (oMult), instead of an int (vMult):
//if we used an int, we'd get an error: 'local variables referenced from a lambda expression must be final or effectively final':
//i.e. we modify an array member, instead of overwriting an int:
int[] oMult = {5};
ToIntFunction<Integer> oFuncMulVar = vNumLambda -> oMult[0] * vNumLambda;
System.out.println(oFuncMulVar.applyAsInt(10)); //50
oMult[0] = 10;
System.out.println(oFuncMulVar.applyAsInt(10)); //100

//MulFixed:
Function<Integer,ToIntFunction<Integer>> oFuncMulMake = vMult -> (vNum -> vMult * vNum);
int vMult = 5;
var oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake.apply(vMult);
System.out.println(oFuncMulFixed.applyAsInt(10)); //50
vMult = 10;
System.out.println(oFuncMulFixed.applyAsInt(10)); //50

[JavaScript]

//MulVar:
vMult = 5;
oFuncMulVar = vNum => vMult * vNum;
console.log(oFuncMulVar(10)); //50
vMult = 10;
console.log(oFuncMulVar(10)); //100

//MulFixed:
oFuncMulMake = vMult => (vNum => vMult * vNum);
vMult = 5;
oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult);
console.log(oFuncMulFixed(10)); //50
vMult = 10;
console.log(oFuncMulFixed(10)); //50

[Kotlin]

//MulVar:
var vMult = 5
var oFuncMulVar = {vNum: Int -> vMult * vNum}
println(oFuncMulVar(10)) //50
vMult = 10
println(oFuncMulVar(10)) //100

//MulFixed:
var oFuncMulMake = {vMult: Int -> {vNum: Int -> vMult * vNum}}
var vMult = 5
var oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult)
println(oFuncMulFixed(10)) //50
vMult = 10
println(oFuncMulFixed(10)) //50

[PHP]

//MulVar:
$vMult = 5;
$oFuncMulVar = function($vNum) use (&$vMult) {return $vMult * $vNum;};
var_dump($oFuncMulVar(10)); //50
$vMult = 10;
var_dump($oFuncMulVar(10)); //100

//MulFixed:
$oFuncMulMake = fn($vMult) => (fn($vNum) => $vMult * $vNum);
//$oFuncMulMake = function($vMult) {return fn($vNum) => $vMult * $vNum;}; //also worked
$vMult = 5;
$oFuncMulFixed = $oFuncMulMake($vMult);
var_dump($oFuncMulFixed(10)); //50
$vMult = 10;
var_dump($oFuncMulFixed(10)); //50

[Python]

#MulVar:
vMult = 5
oFuncMulVar = lambda vNum : vMult * vNum
print(oFuncMulVar(10)) #50
vMult = 10
print(oFuncMulVar(10)) #100

#MulFixed:
oFuncMulMake = lambda vMult : (lambda vNum : vMult * vNum)
vMult = 5
oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult)
print(oFuncMulFixed(10)) #50
vMult = 10
print(oFuncMulFixed(10)) #50

[R]

#MulVar:
vMult = 5
oFuncMulVar = \(vNum) (vMult * vNum)
print(oFuncMulVar(10)) #50
vMult = 10
print(oFuncMulVar(10)) #100

#MulFixed:
oFuncMulMake = \(vMult) (\(vNum) (vMult * vNum))
vMult = 5
oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult)
print(oFuncMulFixed(10)) #50
vMult = 10
print(oFuncMulFixed(10)) #50

[Ruby]

#MulVar:
vMult = 5
oFuncMulVar = ->(vNum) {vMult * vNum}
p oFuncMulVar.call(10) #50
vMult = 10
p oFuncMulVar.call(10) #100

#MulFixed:
oFuncMulMake = ->(vMult) {->(vNum) {vMult * vNum}}
vMult = 5
oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake.call(vMult)
p oFuncMulFixed.call(10) #50
vMult = 10
p oFuncMulFixed.call(10) #50

[Rust]

//requires: use std::rc::Rc;
//requires: use std::cell::RefCell;

//MulVar:
let oMult = Rc::new(RefCell::new(5));
let oFuncMulVar = |vNum:i32| -> i32{*oMult.borrow_mut() * vNum};
println!("{}", oFuncMulVar(10)); //50
*oMult.borrow_mut() = 10;
println!("{}", oFuncMulVar(10)); //100

//MulFixed:
fn oFuncMulMake(vMult:i32) -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 {return move |vNum:i32| -> i32{vMult * vNum};}
let mut vMult = 5;
let oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult);
println!("{}", oFuncMulFixed(10)); //50
vMult = 10;
println!("{}", oFuncMulFixed(10)); //50

[Scala]

//MulVar:
var vMult = 5
var oFuncMulVar = (vNum:Int) => vMult * vNum
println(oFuncMulVar(10)) //50
vMult = 10
println(oFuncMulVar(10)) //100

//MulFixed:
var oFuncMulMake = (vMult:Int) => ((vNum:Int) => vMult * vNum)
var vMult = 5
var oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult)
println(oFuncMulFixed(10)) //50
vMult = 10
println(oFuncMulFixed(10)) //50

[SQL (SQLite)]

[Swift]

//MulVar:
var vMult = 5
var oFuncMulVar: (_ vNum: Int) -> Int = {vNum in vMult * vNum}
print(oFuncMulVar(10)) //50
vMult = 10
print(oFuncMulVar(10)) //100

//MulFixed:
var oFuncMulMake: (_ vMult:Int) -> ((Int) -> Int) = {vMult in {vNum in vMult * vNum}}
var vMult = 5
var oFuncMulFixed = oFuncMulMake(vMult)
print(oFuncMulFixed(10)) //50
vMult = 10
print(oFuncMulFixed(10)) //50

Class Examples: Full UFL: ClassDemoFull [custom 'zoo' class, 'MyClass', demonstrating methods/computed properties (via getters/setters)/simple properties, for classes (e.g. 'static' methods/properties) and instances, private/public(/protected) fields, and constructors/destructors][WARNING: some of the destructor and garbage collection techniques demonstrated are not recommended][note: some programming languages lack some of these core features][see also: Object.NewStrDemo/ClassPropComputed]

method/property summary:
note: upper case means name must contain this string:
=
(instance constructor) - (default name e.g. MyClass/constructor/init)
=
CLASS METHOD (public) - MyClassMethod
CLASS PROPERTY (PRIVATE read/write) - MyClassPropPrivate
CLASS PROPERTY (public read/write) - MyClassProp [MyClassProp_Get/MyClassProp_Set]
CLASS PROPERTY (public READ-ONLY) - MyClassPropReadOnly [MyClassPropReadOnly_Get]
=
instance METHOD (public) - MyMethod
instance PROPERTY (PRIVATE read/write) - MyPropPrivate
instance PROPERTY (public read/write) - MyProp [MyProp_Get/MyProp_Set]
instance PROPERTY (public READ-ONLY) - MyPropReadOnly [MyPropReadOnly_Get]
=
(instance destructor) - (default name e.g. ~MyClass/finalize)
=
[also: a simple property (e.g. a public field, e.g. created via a macro)]
CLASS PROPERTY (public read/write SIMPLE) - MyClassPropSimple
CLASS PROPERTY (public READ-ONLY SIMPLE) - MyClassPropReadOnlySimple [a constant value]
instance PROPERTY (public read/write SIMPLE) - MyPropSimple
instance PROPERTY (public READ-ONLY SIMPLE) - MyPropReadOnlySimple [a constant value]
=
[note: property names of the form (using some/all of the parts): 'MyClassPropPrivateReadOnlySimpleShortAlt']
[note: 'short': something that functions like the non-short version, but that is created via a different (shorter) approach]
[note: 'alt' (alternative): something that functions like the non-alt version, but that is created via a different approach]

note: it is common for fields/variables to appear at the top of a class, often as public properties, or as private properties used by public methods
note: for a class (static) method, 'this'/'self' typically refers to the class
note: for an instance method, 'this'/'self' typically refers to the instance
note: instead of 'MyClass.', to refer to the class object from inside an instance method, a non-hardcoded alternative, in JavaScript: 'this.constructor.'
note: computed (dynamic) properties, typically appear like oObj.MyProp, but use getters/setters and private properties under the hood
note: sometimes 'short' is used to denote alternate shorter syntaxes for method/property definition
note: in some languages the expectation is that you never delete (or set to null) class instances (they are deleted when they go out of scope, i.e. when the function they were created in has finished executing)
note: read-only fields/variables may be denoted in a variety of ways (e.g. const/final/val/let)
WARNING: some of the destructor and garbage collection techniques demonstrated are not recommended

simple checklist:
- fields (variables)
- properties: fields (variables) as simple properties
- methods
- methods: constructor
- properties: computed properties (getters/setters)
- properties/methods: getXXX/setXXX methods (if computed properties unavailable)
- fields (variables): public/private/protected
- methods: destructor
- methods: destructor: force garbage collection
- methods/properties: class (static) methods/properties
- properties: read-only (const) properties

==================================================

[AutoHotkey]

#Requires AutoHotkey v2+

myprint := (vVar:="") => A_Clipboard .= String(vVar) "`r`n"

class MyClass
{
	;note: AutoHotkey doesn't have private properties,
	;a convention is to use the prefix '_' for would-be private properties
	;note: AHK class/instance objects can be assigned any property not specified in the class
	static _MyClassPropPrivate := "MyClassPropPrivate"
	static _MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly := "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly"
	static MyClassPropSimple := "MyClassPropSimple"
	_MyPropPrivate := "MyPropPrivate"
	_MyPropPrivateReadOnly := "MyPropPrivateReadOnly"
	MyPropSimple := "MyPropSimple"

	static MyClassMethod()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethod")
	}

	static MyClassProp
	{
		get
		{
			myprint("MyClassProp_Get")
			myprint("MyClassPropPrivate:" A_Space this._MyClassPropPrivate)
			return this._MyClassPropPrivate
		}
		set
		{
			;note: special variable: 'value'
			myprint("MyClassProp_Set")
			return this._MyClassPropPrivate := value
		}
	}
	static MyClassPropReadOnly
	{
		get
		{
			myprint("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get")
			myprint("MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:" A_Space this._MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly)
			return this._MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly
		}
	}

	__New(vDummy1:="", vDummy2:="")
	{
		myprint("constructor")
		MyClass._MyClassPropPrivate := "MyClassPropPrivate"
		this._MyPropPrivate := "MyPropPrivate"
	}

	MyMethod(vDummy1:="", vDummy2:="")
	{
		myprint("MyMethod")
		myprint("MyClassPropPrivate:" A_Space MyClass._MyClassPropPrivate)
		myprint("MyPropPrivate:" A_Space this._MyPropPrivate)
	}

	MyProp
	{
		get
		{
			myprint("MyProp_Get")
			return this._MyPropPrivate
		}
		set
		{
			;note: special variable: 'value'
			myprint("MyProp_Set")
			return this._MyPropPrivate := value
		}
	}
	MyPropShort
	{
		get => (myprint("MyPropShort_Get"), this._MyPropPrivate)
		set => (myprint("MyPropShort_Set"), this._MyPropPrivate := value)
	}
	MyPropReadOnly
	{
		get
		{
			myprint("MyPropReadOnly_Get")
			return this._MyPropPrivateReadOnly
		}
	}
	MyPropReadOnlyShort => (myprint("MyPropReadOnlyShort_Get"), this._MyPropPrivateReadOnly)

	__Delete()
	{
		myprint("destructor")
	}
}

vRet := MsgBox("warning: will clear clipboard, then print to clipboard,`r`n" "continue?",, "YNC")
if (vRet != "Yes")
{
	MsgBox("early exit")
	return
}
A_Clipboard := ""

MyClass.MyClassMethod()
myprint()

vProp := MyClass.MyClassProp
myprint("ret:" A_Space vProp)
myprint()

oObj := MyClass()
myprint()

oObj.MyMethod()
myprint()

vProp := oObj.MyPropReadOnly
myprint("ret:" A_Space vProp)
vProp := oObj.MyProp
myprint("ret:" A_Space vProp)
oObj.MyProp := "MyPropPrivateNew"
vProp := oObj.MyProp
myprint("ret:" A_Space vProp)
myprint()

vProp := oObj.MyPropSimple
myprint("ret:" A_Space vProp)
oObj.MyPropSimple := "MyPropSimpleNew"
vProp := oObj.MyPropSimple
myprint("ret:" A_Space vProp)
myprint()

oObj := ""
myprint("the end")
MsgBox("the end")

==================================================

[C++]

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

template<typename T=char[], typename U> void myprint(T const& vVar1, U const& vVar2) {std::cout << (vVar1) << " " << (vVar2) << "\n";}
template<typename T=char[]> void myprint(T const& vVar="") {std::cout << (vVar) << "\n";}

class MyClass
{
	//note: get error: 'static data member 'MyClassPropPrivate' not allowed in local class 'MyClass''
	//and similar errors for other class (static) variables
	//if class is defined within a function
	private:
	inline static std::string MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
	inline static std::string MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly";
	std::string MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	std::string MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly";

	public:
	inline static std::string MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple";
	inline const static std::string MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple";
	std::string MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple";
	const std::string MyPropReadOnlySimple = "MyPropReadOnlySimple";

	static void MyClassMethod()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethod");
	}

	//WARNING: C++ lacks computed properties e.g. oObj.MyProp,
	//however, you can create ordinary oObj.MyProp properties:
	static std::string getMyClassProp()
	{
		myprint("MyClassProp_Get");
		myprint("MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass::MyClassPropPrivate);
		return MyClass::MyClassPropPrivate;
	}
	static std::string setMyClassProp(std::string vValue)
	{
		myprint("MyClassProp_Set");
		return MyClass::MyClassPropPrivate = vValue;
	}
	static std::string getMyClassPropReadOnly()
	{
		myprint("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get");
		myprint("MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", MyClass::MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly);
		return MyClass::MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly;
	}

	MyClass(std::string vDummy1="", std::string vDummy2="")
	{
		myprint("constructor");
		MyClass::MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
		this->MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	}

	void MyMethod(std::string vDummy1="", std::string vDummy2="")
	{
		myprint("MyMethod");
		myprint("MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass::MyClassPropPrivate);
		myprint("MyPropPrivate:", this->MyPropPrivate);
	}

	std::string getMyProp()
	{
		myprint("MyProp_Get");
		return this->MyPropPrivate;
	}
	std::string setMyProp(std::string vValue)
	{
		myprint("MyProp_Set");
		return this->MyPropPrivate = vValue;
	}
	std::string getMyPropReadOnly()
	{
		myprint("MyPropReadOnly_Get");
		return this->MyPropPrivateReadOnly;
	}

	//a method declared inside the class, but defined outside the class:
	static void MyClassMethodOutOfLine();

	~MyClass()
	{
		myprint("destructor");
	}
};

//a method declared inside the class, but defined outside the class:
void MyClass::MyClassMethodOutOfLine()
{
	myprint("MyClassMethodOutOfLine");
}

int main()
{
	MyClass::MyClassMethod();
	myprint();

	auto vProp = MyClass::getMyClassProp();
	myprint("ret:", vProp);
	myprint();

	//additional test code:
	//MyClass::MyClassMethodOutOfLine();

	//auto oObj = MyClass(); //also works
	//MyClass oObj = MyClass(); //also works
	MyClass oObj;
	myprint();

	oObj.MyMethod();
	myprint();

	vProp = oObj.getMyPropReadOnly();
	myprint("ret:", vProp);
	vProp = oObj.getMyProp();
	myprint("ret:", vProp);
	oObj.setMyProp("MyPropPrivateNew");
	vProp = oObj.getMyProp();
	myprint("ret:", vProp);
	myprint();

	vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple;
	myprint("ret:", vProp);
	oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew";
	vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple;
	myprint("ret:", vProp);
	myprint();

	//delete oObj; //note: object created without using 'new', so we don't use 'delete',
	//it is a 'non-new' object, a 'non-pointer' object, we can't forcibly delete it,
	//the destructor is called when the function, in which the object was created, finishes executing
	myprint("the end");

	//==============================

	myprint();
	myprint("2nd object:");

	MyClass::MyClassMethod();
	myprint();

	auto vProp2 = MyClass::getMyClassProp();
	myprint("ret:", vProp2);
	myprint();

	//WARNING: using 'new' requires using the '->' (arrow) operator,
	//whereas omitting 'new' requires using the preferable '.' (dot) operator:
	//auto oObj2 = new MyClass(); //also works
	MyClass* oObj2 = new MyClass();
	myprint();

	oObj2->MyMethod();
	myprint();

	vProp2 = oObj2->getMyPropReadOnly();
	myprint("ret:", vProp2);
	vProp2 = oObj2->getMyProp();
	myprint("ret:", vProp2);
	oObj2->setMyProp("MyPropPrivateNew");
	vProp2 = oObj2->getMyProp();
	myprint("ret:", vProp2);
	myprint();

	vProp = oObj2->MyPropSimple;
	myprint("ret:", vProp);
	oObj2->MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew";
	vProp = oObj2->MyPropSimple;
	myprint("ret:", vProp);
	myprint();

	delete oObj2;
	myprint("the end");
}

==================================================

[C#]

using System;

public class MyClass
{
	static string MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
	static string MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly";
	public static string MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple";
	//WARNING: no 'public static const':
	//'public const' is a read-only class variable,
	//no way to do a read-only instance variable (workaround: a computed property)
	public const string MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple";
	string MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	string MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly";
	public string MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple";

	static public void MyClassMethod()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethod");
	}

	static public string MyClassProp
	{
		get
		{
			Console.WriteLine("MyClassProp_Get");
			Console.WriteLine(("MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate));
			return MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate;
		}
		set
		{
			//note: special variable: 'value'
			Console.WriteLine("MyClassProp_Set");
			MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate = value;
			//return MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate = value; //C# setters return void
		}
	}
	static public string MyClassPropReadOnly
	{
		get
		{
			Console.WriteLine("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get");
			Console.WriteLine(("MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly));
			return MyClass.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly;
		}
	}

	public MyClass(string vDummy1="", string vDummy2="")
	{
		Console.WriteLine("constructor");
		MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
		this.MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	}

	public void MyMethod(string vDummy1="", string vDummy2="")
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethod");
		Console.WriteLine(("MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate));
		Console.WriteLine(("MyPropPrivate:", this.MyPropPrivate));
	}

	public string MyProp
	{
		get
		{
			Console.WriteLine("MyProp_Get");
			return this.MyPropPrivate;
		}
		set
		{
			//note: special variable: 'value'
			Console.WriteLine("MyProp_Set");
			this.MyPropPrivate = value;
			//return this.MyPropPrivate = value; //C# setters return void
		}
	}
	public string MyPropReadOnly
	{
		get
		{
			Console.WriteLine("MyPropReadOnly_Get");
			return this.MyPropPrivateReadOnly;
		}
	}

	~MyClass()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("destructor");
	}
}

public class Program
{
	public static void Main()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethod();
		Console.WriteLine();

		var vProp = MyClass.MyClassProp;
		Console.WriteLine(("ret:", vProp));
		Console.WriteLine();

		var oObj = new MyClass();
		Console.WriteLine();

		oObj.MyMethod();
		Console.WriteLine();

		vProp = oObj.MyPropReadOnly;
		Console.WriteLine(("ret:", vProp));
		vProp = oObj.MyProp;
		Console.WriteLine(("ret:", vProp));
		oObj.MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew";
		vProp = oObj.MyProp;
		Console.WriteLine(("ret:", vProp));
		Console.WriteLine();

		vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple;
		Console.WriteLine(("ret:", vProp));
		oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew";
		vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple;
		Console.WriteLine(("ret:", vProp));
		Console.WriteLine();

		//works:
		//vProp = MyClass.MyClassPropSimple;
		//Console.WriteLine(("ret:", vProp));
		//MyClass.MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimpleNew";
		//vProp = MyClass.MyClassPropSimple;
		//Console.WriteLine(("ret:", vProp));
		//Console.WriteLine();

		oObj = null;
		System.GC.Collect(); //failed attempt to force garbage collection, to test the destructor
		Console.WriteLine("the end");
	}
}

==================================================

[Crystal]

class MyClass
	@@myClassPropPrivate = "myClassPropPrivate"
	@@myClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "myClassPropPrivateReadOnly"
	@myPropPrivate = "myPropPrivate"
	@myPropPrivateReadOnly = "myPropPrivateReadOnly"
	property myPropSimple = "myProp"
	getter myPropReadOnlySimple = "myPropReadOnlySimple"

	def self.myClassMethod()
		p "myClassMethod"
	end

	def self.myClassProp #getter (note: a standard method)
		p "myClassProp_Get"
		p ["myClassPropPrivate:", @@myClassPropPrivate]
		return @@myClassPropPrivate
	end
	def self.myClassProp=(vValue) #setter
		p "myClassProp_Set"
		return @@myClassPropPrivate = vValue
	end
	def self.myClassPropReadOnly #getter (actually a standard method)
		p "myClassPropReadOnly_Get"
		p ["myClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", @@myClassPropPrivateReadOnly]
		return @@myClassPropPrivateReadOnly
	end

	def initialize(vDummy1 : String="", vDummy2 : String="")
		p "constructor"
		@@myClassPropPrivate = "myClassPropPrivate"
		@myPropPrivate = "myPropPrivate"
	end

	def myMethod(vDummy1 : String="", vDummy2 : String="")
		p "myMethod"
		p ["myClassPropPrivate:", @@myClassPropPrivate]
		p ["myPropPrivate:", @myPropPrivate]
	end

	def myProp #getter (note: a standard method)
		p "myProp_Get"
		return @myPropPrivate
	end
	def myProp=(vValue) #setter
		p "myProp_Set"
		return @myPropPrivate = vValue
	end
	def myPropReadOnly #getter (actually a standard method)
		p "myPropReadOnly_Get"
		return @myPropPrivateReadOnly
	end

	def finalize
		p "destructor"
	end
end

MyClass.myClassMethod()
puts "\n"

vProp = MyClass.myClassProp
p ["ret:", vProp]
puts "\n"

oObj = MyClass.new()
puts "\n"

oObj.myMethod()
puts "\n"

vProp = oObj.myPropReadOnly
p ["ret:", vProp]
vProp = oObj.myProp
p ["ret:", vProp]
oObj.myProp = "myPropPrivateNew"
vProp = oObj.myProp
p ["ret:", vProp]
puts "\n"

vProp = oObj.myPropSimple
p ["ret:", vProp]
oObj.myPropSimple = "myPropSimpleNew"
vProp = oObj.myPropSimple
p ["ret:", vProp]
puts "\n"

#additional test code:
#p MyClass::MyClassPropReadOnlySimple

oObj = nil
GC.collect
p "the end"

==================================================

[Excel]

==================================================

[Excel VBA]

''MyClass' class module:
'to create a class module:
'Alt+F11 to open the VBA editor
'Insert, Class Module
'this creates a module, e.g. 'Class1'
'click the treeview item, e.g. 'Class1'
'next to '(Name)', click the label, e.g. 'Class1', to rename the module
'e.g. 'MyClass'

Private MyClassPropPrivate 'note: intended as a 'class'/'static' variable
Private MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly 'note: intended as a 'class'/'static' variable
'Public MyClassPropSimple 'note: intended as a 'class'/'static' variable
Private MyPropPrivate
Private MyPropPrivateReadOnly
Public MyPropSimple
Public Static Function MyClassMethod()
    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethod")
End Function
Static Property Get MyClassProp()
    Debug.Print ("MyClassProp_Get")
    Debug.Print ("MyClassPropPrivate:" & " " & MyClassPropPrivate)
    MyClassProp = MyClassPropPrivate
End Property
'WARNING: 2 kinds of setter: 'Property Let' and 'Property Set'
Static Property Let MyClassProp(vValue)
    Debug.Print ("MyClassProp_Set")
    MyClassPropPrivate = vValue
    'MyClassProp = vValue 'WARNING: would cause an infinite loop
End Property
Static Property Get MyClassPropReadOnly()
    Debug.Print ("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get")
    Debug.Print ("MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:" & " " & MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly)
    MyClassPropReadOnly = MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly
End Property
Private Sub Class_Initialize()
    Debug.Print ("initializer (initialiser)")
    MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
    MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly"
    MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple"
    MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
    MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly"
    MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple"
End Sub
'note: a custom 'constructor' method that must be called explicitly:
Sub InitValues(Optional vDummy1 = "", Optional vDummy2 = "")
    Debug.Print ("constructor")
    MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
    MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
End Sub
Public Function MyMethod(Optional vDummy1 = "", Optional vDummy2 = "")
    Debug.Print ("MyMethod")
    Debug.Print ("MyClassPropPrivate:" & " " & MyClassPropPrivate)
    'note: a way to access a 'class'/'static' variable via a 'class'/'static' property:
    'Dim MyClass As MyClass
    'Set MyClass = New MyClass
    'Debug.Print ("MyClassPropPrivate:" & " " & MyClass.MyClassProp)
    Debug.Print ("MyPropPrivate:" & " " & MyPropPrivate)
End Function
Property Get MyProp() As String
    Debug.Print ("MyProp_Get")
    MyProp = MyPropPrivate
End Property
'WARNING: 2 kinds of setter: 'Property Let' and 'Property Set'
Property Let MyProp(vValue As String) 'setter
    Debug.Print ("MyProp_Set")
    MyPropPrivate = vValue
    'MyProp = vValue 'WARNING: would cause an infinite loop
End Property
Property Get MyPropReadOnly()
    Debug.Print ("MyPropReadOnly_Get")
    MyPropReadOnly = MyPropPrivateReadOnly
End Property
Private Sub Class_Terminate()
    Debug.Print ("destructor")
End Sub

'==============================

'e.g. code to put in a macro:

Dim MyClass As MyClass
Set MyClass = New MyClass

MyClass.MyClassMethod
Debug.Print

vProp = MyClass.MyClassProp
Debug.Print ("ret:" & " " & vProp)
Debug.Print

Dim oObj As New MyClass
Set oObj = New MyClass
Call oObj.InitValues
Debug.Print

oObj.MyMethod
Debug.Print

vProp = oObj.MyPropReadOnly
Debug.Print ("ret:" & " " & vProp)
vProp = oObj.MyProp
Debug.Print ("ret:" & " " & vProp)
oObj.MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew"
vProp = oObj.MyProp
Debug.Print ("ret:" & " " & vProp)
Debug.Print

vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
Debug.Print ("ret:" & " " & vProp)
oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew"
vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
Debug.Print ("ret:" & " " & vProp)
Debug.Print

Set oObj = Nothing
Debug.Print ("the end")

==================================================

[Go]

//WARNING: no class ('static') properties/methods or workarounds in this demo:

package main

import (
	"fmt"
	"runtime"
	"runtime/debug"
)

func main() {
	vProp := ""

	oObj := MyClassNew()
	fmt.Println()

	oObj.MyMethod()
	fmt.Println()

	vProp = oObj.getMyPropReadOnly()
	fmt.Println("ret:", vProp)
	vProp = oObj.getMyProp()
	fmt.Println("ret:", vProp)
	oObj.setMyProp("MyPropPrivateNew")
	vProp = oObj.getMyProp()
	fmt.Println("ret:", vProp)
	fmt.Println()

	vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
	fmt.Println("ret:", vProp)
	oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew"
	vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
	fmt.Println("ret:", vProp)
	fmt.Println()

	//oObj = nil //error: 'cannot use nil as MyClass value in assignment'
	fmt.Println("the end")

	//==============================

	oObj2 := MyClassInterface(&MyClass{})
	oObj2.MyMethod()
	fmt.Println()

	//fmt.Println(oObj.MyPropSimple) //can access all struct variables
	//fmt.Println(oObj2.MyPropSimple) //error: can only access struct variables listed in interface

	//note: attempt to force garbage collection to test that destructor is working:
	//runtime.GC()
	debug.FreeOSMemory()
}

// note: no 'static'/'class' variables:
// note: no 'classes', use a struct as a workaround:
type MyClass struct {
	//note: the 'private' variables,
	//are private for the 'MyClassInterface' interface,
	//but public for the 'MyClass' struct:
	MyPropPrivate         string
	MyPropPrivateReadOnly string
	MyPropSimple          string
}

// note: Go structs do not support private variables,
// workaround: use an interface
// (note: alternative workaround: use a package,
// where private fields start lower case, public fields start upper case)
type MyClassInterface interface {
	MyMethod()
	getMyProp() string
	setMyProp(string)
	getMyPropReadOnly() string
}

// WARNING: use '*' for the receiver to modify the object (by reference), omit it to clone the object (by value):
func (oObj *MyClass) MyMethod() {
	fmt.Println("MyMethod")
	fmt.Println("MyPropPrivate:", oObj.MyPropPrivate)
}

// WARNING: Go lacks computed properties e.g. oObj.MyProp,
// however, you can create ordinary oObj.MyProp properties:
func (oObj *MyClass) getMyProp() string {
	fmt.Println("MyProp_Get")
	return oObj.MyPropPrivate
}
func (oObj *MyClass) setMyProp(vValue string) {
	fmt.Println("MyProp_Set")
	oObj.MyPropPrivate = vValue
}
func (oObj *MyClass) getMyPropReadOnly() string {
	fmt.Println("MyPropReadOnly_Get")
	return oObj.MyPropPrivateReadOnly
}

// note: custom constructor:
func MyClassNew() MyClass {
	fmt.Println("constructor")
	oObj := MyClass{
		MyPropPrivate:         "MyPropPrivate",
		MyPropPrivateReadOnly: "MyPropPrivateReadOnly",
		MyPropSimple:          "MyPropSimple",
	}
	runtime.SetFinalizer(&oObj, func(oObj *MyClass) { fmt.Println("destructor") })
	return oObj
}

==================================================

[Java]

import java.util.*; //for List.of

class MyClass
{
	static String MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
	static String MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly";
	static String MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple";
	static final String MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple";
	String MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	String MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly";
	public String MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple";
	public final String MyPropReadOnlySimple = "MyPropReadOnlySimple";

	static public void MyClassMethod()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethod");
	}

	static public String getMyClassProp()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassProp_Get");
		System.out.println(List.of("MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate));
		return MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate;
	}
	static public String setMyClassProp(String vValue)
	{
			System.out.println("MyClassProp_Set");
			return MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate = vValue;
	}
	static public String getMyClassPropReadOnly()
	{
			System.out.println("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get");
			System.out.println(List.of("MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly));
			return MyClass.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly;
	}

	//WARNING: Java lacks default values, use overloading as a workaround:
	//public MyClass(String vDummy1, String vDummy2)
	public MyClass()
	{
		System.out.println("constructor");
		MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
		this.MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	}

	//public MyMethod(String vDummy1, String vDummy2)
	public void MyMethod()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethod");
		System.out.println(List.of("MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate));
		System.out.println(List.of("MyPropPrivate:", this.MyPropPrivate));
	}

	//WARNING: Java lacks computed properties e.g. oObj.MyProp,
	//the convention is getXXX() and setXXX() methods,
	//however, you can create ordinary oObj.MyProp properties:
	//e.g. public String MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple";
	public String getMyProp()
	{
		System.out.println("MyProp_Get");
		return this.MyPropPrivate;
	}
	public String setMyProp(String vValue)
	{
		System.out.println("MyProp_Set");
		return this.MyPropPrivate = vValue;
	}
	public String getMyPropReadOnly()
	{
		System.out.println("MyPropReadOnly_Get");
		return this.MyPropPrivateReadOnly;
	}

	protected void finalize() throws Throwable
	{
		try
		{
			System.out.println("destructor");
		}
		catch (Throwable e)
		{
		}
		finally
		{
			super.finalize();
		}
	}
}

//class HelloWorld
class Main
{
	public static void main(String[] args)
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethod();
		System.out.println();

		var vProp = MyClass.getMyClassProp();
		System.out.println(List.of("ret:", vProp));
		System.out.println();

		var oObj = new MyClass();
		System.out.println();

		oObj.MyMethod();
		System.out.println();

		vProp = oObj.getMyPropReadOnly();
		System.out.println(List.of("ret:", vProp));
		vProp = oObj.getMyProp();
		System.out.println(List.of("ret:", vProp));
		oObj.setMyProp("MyPropPrivateNew");
		vProp = oObj.getMyProp();
		System.out.println(List.of("ret:", vProp));
		System.out.println();

		vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple;
		System.out.println(List.of("ret:", vProp));
		oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropPrivateNew";
		vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple;
		System.out.println(List.of("ret:", vProp));
		System.out.println();

		//note: ordinary way to delete instance reference:
		//oObj = null;
		//note: explicitly calling finalize to demonstrate it:
		try
		{
			oObj.finalize();
		}
		catch (Throwable e)
		{
		}
		System.out.println("the end");
	}
}

==================================================

[JavaScript]

oRegistry = new FinalizationRegistry(oFunc=>oFunc());

class MyClass
{
	static #MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
	static #MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly";
	static MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple";
	#MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	#MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly";
	MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple";

	static MyClassMethod()
	{
		console.log("MyClassMethod");
	}

	static get MyClassProp()
	{
		console.log("MyClassProp_Get");
		console.log(["MyClassPropPrivate:", this.#MyClassPropPrivate]);
		return this.#MyClassPropPrivate;
	}
	static set MyClassProp(vValue)
	{
		console.log("MyClassProp_Set");
		return this.#MyClassPropPrivate = vValue;
	}
	static get MyClassPropReadOnly()
	{
		console.log("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get");
		console.log(["MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", this.#MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly]);
		return this.#MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly;
	}

	constructor(vDummy1="", vDummy2="")
	{
		console.log("constructor");
		MyClass.#MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
		//MyClass.MyClassProp = "MyClassPropPrivate";
		this.#MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
		oRegistry.register(this, ()=>console.log("destructor"));
	}

	MyMethod(vDummy1="", vDummy2="")
	{
		console.log("MyMethod");
		console.log(["MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.#MyClassPropPrivate]);
		//console.log(["MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.MyClassProp]);
		console.log(["MyPropPrivate:", this.#MyPropPrivate]);
	}

	get MyProp()
	{
		console.log("MyProp_Get");
		return this.#MyPropPrivate;
	}
	set MyProp(vValue)
	{
		console.log("MyProp_Set");
		return this.#MyPropPrivate = vValue;
	}
	get MyPropReadOnly()
	{
		console.log("MyPropReadOnly_Get");
		return this.#MyPropPrivateReadOnly;
	}
}

MyClass.MyClassMethod();
console.log();

vProp = MyClass.MyClassProp;
console.log(["ret:", vProp]);
console.log();

oObj = new MyClass();
console.log();

oObj.MyMethod();
console.log();

vProp = oObj.MyPropReadOnly;
console.log(["ret:", vProp]);
vProp = oObj.MyProp;
console.log(["ret:", vProp]);
oObj.MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew";
vProp = oObj.MyProp;
console.log(["ret:", vProp]);
console.log();

vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple;
console.log(["ret:", vProp]);
oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew";
vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple;
console.log(["ret:", vProp]);
console.log();

//works:
//vProp = MyClass.MyClassPropSimple;
//console.log(["ret:", vProp]);
//MyClass.MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimpleNew";
//vProp = MyClass.MyClassPropSimple;
//console.log(["ret:", vProp]);
//console.log();

//garbage collector demo:
//oArray = [];
//oRegistry = new FinalizationRegistry(oFunc=>oFunc());
//oRegistry.register(oArray, ()=>console.log("my message"));
//oArray = null;

//Chrome: clear garbage collector:
//click Console tab
//paste code into console and run it
//click Performance tab
//click 'Collect garbage' button (it looks like a birthday cake)
//click Console tab
//the message should be printed

oObj = null;
console.log("the end");

==================================================

[Kotlin]

class MyClass
{
	private var MyPropPrivate: String = "MyPropPrivate"
	private var MyPropPrivateReadOnly: String = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly"
	var MyPropSimple: String = "MyPropSimple"
	val MyPropReadOnlySimple: String = "MyPropReadOnlySimple"

	//note: get error: Modifier 'companion' is not applicable inside 'local class'
	//if class is defined within a function
	companion object
	{
		private var MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
		private var MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly"
		var MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple"
		val MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple"

		fun MyClassMethod()
		{
			println("MyClassMethod")
		}

		var MyClassProp: String
			get()
			{
				println("MyClassProp_Get")
				println(Pair("MyClassPropPrivate:", this.MyClassPropPrivate))
				return this.MyClassPropPrivate
			}
			set(vValue)
			{
				println("MyClassProp_Set")
				//return this.MyClassPropPrivate = vValue //Kotlin setters return void
				this.MyClassPropPrivate = vValue
			}
		var MyClassPropReadOnly: String = ""
			get()
			{
				println("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get")
				println(Pair("MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", this.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly))
				return this.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly
			}
	}

	constructor(vDummy1: String="", vDummy2: String="")
	{
		println("constructor")
		MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
		this.MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
	}

	fun MyMethod(vDummy1: String="", vDummy2: String="") : Unit
	{
		println("MyMethod")
		println(Pair("MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate))
		println(Pair("MyPropPrivate:", this.MyPropPrivate))
	}

	var MyProp: String
		get()
		{
			println("MyProp_Get")
			return this.MyPropPrivate
		}
		set(vValue)
		{
			println("MyProp_Set")
			//return this.MyPropPrivate = vValue //Kotlin setters return void
			this.MyPropPrivate = vValue
		}
	var MyPropReadOnly: String = ""
		get()
		{
			println("MyPropReadOnly_Get")
			return this.MyPropPrivateReadOnly
		}

	fun finalize()
	{
		println("destructor")
	}
}

fun main()
{
	MyClass.MyClassMethod()
	println()

	var vProp = MyClass.MyClassProp
	println(Pair("ret:", vProp))
	println()

	//var oObj = MyClass() //note: can't be assigned null
	var oObj: MyClass? = MyClass() //note: can be assigned null, but requires using 'oObj!!' (for methods) instead of 'oObj'
	println()

	oObj!!.MyMethod()
	println()

	vProp = oObj.MyPropReadOnly
	println(Pair("ret:", vProp))
	vProp = oObj.MyProp
	println(Pair("ret:", vProp))
	oObj.MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew"
	vProp = oObj.MyProp
	println(Pair("ret:", vProp))
	println()

	vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
	println(Pair("ret:", vProp))
	oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew"
	vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
	println(Pair("ret:", vProp))
	println()

	//note: ordinary way to delete instance reference:
	//oObj = null
	//note: explicitly calling finalize to demonstrate it:
	oObj.finalize()
	println("the end")
}

==================================================

[PHP]

<?php
class MyClass
{
	private static $MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
	private static $MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly";
	public static $MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple";
	const MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple"; //WARNING: no '$' prefix //note: const variable names are typically written in upper case
	private $MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	private $MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly";
	public $MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple";

	public static function MyClassMethod()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethod");
	}

	//WARNING: __get/__set not available for static properties:
	//public static function __get($vProp) //for property getters
	//{
	//	if ($vProp == "MyClassPropSimple")
	//	{
	//		var_dump("MyClassProp_Get");
	//		var_dump(["MyClassPropPrivate:", $this->MyClassPropPrivate]);
	//		return $this->MyClassPropPrivate;
	//	}
	//	else if ($vProp == "MyClassPropReadOnly")
	//	{
	//		var_dump("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get");
	//		var_dump(["MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", $this->MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly]);
	//		return $this->MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly;
	//	}
	//}
	//public static function __set($vProp, $vValue) //for property setters
	//{
	//	if ($vProp == "MyClassPropSimple")
	//	{
	//		var_dump("MyClassProp_Set");
	//		return $this->MyClassPropPrivate = $vValue;
	//	}
	//}

	public function __construct($vDummy1="", $vDummy2="")
	{
		var_dump("constructor");
		MyClass::$MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate";
		$this->MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate";
	}

	public function MyMethod($vDummy1="", $vDummy2="")
	{
		var_dump("MyMethod");
		var_dump(["MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass::$MyClassPropPrivate]);
		var_dump(["MyPropPrivate:", $this->MyPropPrivate]);
	}

	public function __get($vProp) //for property getters
	{
		if ($vProp == "MyProp")
		{
			var_dump("MyProp_Get");
			return $this->MyPropPrivate;
		}
		else if ($vProp == "MyPropReadOnly")
		{
			var_dump("MyPropReadOnly_Get");
			return $this->MyPropPrivateReadOnly;
		}
	}
	public function __set($vProp, $vValue) //for property setters
	{
		if ($vProp == "MyProp")
		{
			var_dump("MyProp_Set");
			return $this->MyPropPrivate = $vValue;
		}
	}

	public function __destruct()
	{
		var_dump("destructor");
	}
}

MyClass::MyClassMethod();
var_dump("");

//$vProp = MyClass::$MyClassProp;
$vProp = "ERROR";
var_dump(["ret:", $vProp]);
var_dump("");

$oObj = new MyClass();
var_dump("");

$oObj->MyMethod();
var_dump("");

$vProp = $oObj->MyPropReadOnly;
var_dump(["ret:", $vProp]);
$vProp = $oObj->MyProp;
var_dump(["ret:", $vProp]);
$oObj->MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew";
$vProp = $oObj->MyProp;
var_dump(["ret:", $vProp]);
var_dump("");

$vProp = $oObj->MyPropSimple;
var_dump(["ret:", $vProp]);
$oObj->MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew";
$vProp = $oObj->MyPropSimple;
var_dump(["ret:", $vProp]);
var_dump("");

//additional test code:
//var_dump(MyClass::MyClassPropReadOnlySimple);

$oObj = null;
var_dump("the end");

==================================================

[Python]

class MyClass:
	#note: Python doesn't have private properties,
	#a convention is to use the prefix '_' for would-be private properties
	_MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
	_MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly"
	MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple"
	#note: can't define instance variables at the top of the class, see '__init__()'

	@classmethod
	def MyClassMethod(self):
		print("MyClassMethod")

	#WARNING: Python lacks functionality for class property getters/setters
	#@classmethod
	#@property
	#def MyClassProp(self):
	#	print("MyClassProp_Get")
	#	print(["MyClassPropPrivate:", self._MyClassPropPrivate])
	#	return MyClass._MyClassPropPrivate
	#@classmethod
	#@MyClassProp.setter
	#def MyClassProp(self, vValue):
	#	print("MyClassProp_Set")
	#	MyClass._MyClassPropPrivate = vValue
	#	return vValue
	#@classmethod
	#@property
	#def MyClassPropReadOnly(self):
	#	print("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get")
	#	print(["MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", self._MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly])
	#	return MyClass._MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly

	def __init__(self, vDummy1="", vDummy2=""):
		self._MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
		self._MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly"
		self.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple"

		print("constructor")
		MyClass._MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
		self._MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"

	def MyMethod(self, vDummy1="", vDummy2=""):
		print("MyMethod")
		print(["MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass._MyClassPropPrivate])
		print(["MyPropPrivate:", self._MyPropPrivate])

	@property
	def MyProp(self):
		print("MyProp_Get")
		return self._MyPropPrivate
	@MyProp.setter
	def MyProp(self, vValue):
		print("MyProp_Set")
		self._MyPropPrivate = vValue
		return vValue
	@property
	def MyPropReadOnly(self):
		print("MyPropReadOnly_Get")
		return self._MyPropPrivateReadOnly

	def __del__(self):
		print("destructor")
#end of class

MyClass.MyClassMethod()
print()

#vProp = MyClass.MyClassProp
vProp = "ERROR"
print(["ret:", vProp])
print()

oObj = MyClass()
print()

oObj.MyMethod()
print()

vProp = oObj.MyPropReadOnly
print(["ret:", vProp])
vProp = oObj.MyProp
print(["ret:", vProp])
oObj.MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew"
vProp = oObj.MyProp
print(["ret:", vProp])
print()

vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
print(["ret:", vProp])
oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew"
vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
print(["ret:", vProp])
print()

oObj = None
print("the end")

==================================================

[R]

#note: 3 examples: reference class, S4 class, S3 class:

#==============================

#WARNING: no class ('static') properties/methods or workarounds in this demo:
#note: workaround: use variable names containing dots, that look like method calls:
MyClass.MyMethod = function() "MyMethod"
MyClass.MyMethod()
MyClass.MySum = function(vNum1, vNum2) vNum1 + vNum2
MyClass.MySum(11, 22)

#note: a reference class (not an S3 or S4 class):
MyClass = setRefClass(
	"MyClass",

	#note: using the custom prefix 'priv' to indicate 'private' fields:
	#note: fields: 'either a character vector of field names or a named list of the fields':
	#note: type can be 'ANY':
	fields = list(
		privMyPropPrivate = "character",
		privMyPropPrivateReadOnly = "character",
		MyPropSimple = "character",
		MyPropReadOnlySimple = "character"
	),

	#WARNING: R lacks computed properties e.g. oObj.MyProp,
	#however, you can create ordinary oObj.MyProp properties:
	methods = list(
	initialize = function(vDummy1="", vDummy2="")
	{
		#note: '<<-', non-local assignment operator:
		privMyPropPrivate <<- "MyPropPrivate"
		privMyPropPrivateReadOnly <<- "MyPropPrivateReadOnly"
		MyPropSimple <<- "MyPropSimple"
		MyPropReadOnlySimple <<- "MyPropReadOnlySimple" #note: we make this read-only by using 'lock' lower down

		print("constructor")
		privMyPropPrivate <<- "MyPropPrivate"
	},
	MyMethod = function(vDummy1="", vDummy2="")
	{
		print("MyMethod")
		print(c("MyPropPrivate:", privMyPropPrivate))
	},
	getMyProp = function()
	{
		print("MyProp_Get")
		privMyPropPrivate
	},
	setMyProp = function(vValue)
	{
		print("MyProp_Set")
		privMyPropPrivate <<- vValue
	},
	getMyPropReadOnly = function()
	{
		print("MyPropReadOnly_Get")
		privMyPropPrivateReadOnly
	},
	finalize = function()
	{
		print("destructor")
	}
	)
)
MyClass$lock("MyPropReadOnlySimple") #note: makes fields read-only

vProp = ""

oObj = MyClass$new()
cat("\n")

oObj$MyMethod()
cat("\n")

vProp = oObj$getMyPropReadOnly()
print(c("ret:", vProp))
vProp = oObj$getMyProp()
print(c("ret:", vProp))
oObj$setMyProp("MyPropPrivateNew")
vProp = oObj$getMyProp()
print(c("ret:", vProp))
cat("\n")

vProp = oObj$MyPropSimple
print(c("ret:", vProp))
oObj$MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew"
vProp = oObj$MyPropSimple
print(c("ret:", vProp))
cat("\n")

rm(oObj)
#oObj = NULL #also works
gc()
#invisible(gc()) #note: run gc() but hide the output

print("the end")

#==============================

#note: an S4 class:

#note: setClass requires at least one slot (so can't create an empty object):
#note: slots: 'The argument must be vector with a names attribute' i.e. 'slots = c(', although 'slots = list(' appears to work also:
MyS4Class = setClass("MyS4Class", slots=c(p1="character", p2="character", p3="character"))
oObj = MyS4Class(p1="v1", p2="v2", p3="v3")

#alternatively:
#setClass("MyS4Class", slots=c(p1="character", p2="character", p3="character"))
#oObj = new("MyS4Class", p1="v1", p2="v2", p3="v3")

is.object(oObj) #TRUE
isS4(oObj) #TRUE
is(oObj, "refClass") #FALSE
cat("\n")

print(oObj)
cat("\n")

print(oObj@p1)
print(slot(oObj, "p1"))

#variable names containing dots, that look like method calls:

oObj.MyMethod = function() "MyMethod"
oObj.MyMethod()

oObj.MySum = function(vNum1, vNum2) vNum1 + vNum2
oObj.MySum(11, 22)

#==============================

#note: an S3 class:

oObj = structure(list(), class="MyS3Class")

#alternatively:
#oObj = list()
#class(oObj) = "MyS3Class"
oObj$p1 = "v1"
oObj[["p2"]] = "v2"

is.object(oObj) #TRUE
isS4(oObj) #FALSE
is(oObj, "refClass") #FALSE
cat("\n")

print(oObj)
cat("\n")

print(oObj$p1)
print(oObj[["p1"]])

#variable names containing dots, that look like method calls:

oObj.MyMethod = function() "MyMethod"
oObj.MyMethod()

oObj.MySum = function(vNum1, vNum2) vNum1 + vNum2
oObj.MySum(11, 22)

==================================================

[Ruby]

#note: useful code for inspection:
#p MyClass.class_variables
#p MyClass.instance_variables
#p MyClass.singleton_class.instance_methods(false) #note: the class's singleton class (eigenclass) (metaclass)
#p MyClass.class_variable_get(:@@MyClassPropPrivate)
#p MyClass.instance_variable_get(:@MyPropPrivate)

class MyClass
	#note: @@MyVar is a class variable (available to the class and to instances)
	#note: @MyVar is an instance variable (each instance object has its own copy, and the class itself has its own copy)
	#note: '@@MyVar = MyValue', at the top of a class, will initialise a class variable
	#note: '@MyVar = MyValue', at the top of a class, will only affect @MyVar used in class methods (and not in instance methods)
	#note: '@MyVar = MyValue', used in the 'initialize' method, will initialise @MyVar in instance methods
	#note: if a subclass modifies @@MyVar, this also modifies @@MyVar in the parent class

	@@MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
	@@MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly"
	@@MyClassPropPrivateAlt = "MyClassPropPrivateAlt"
	@@MyClassPropPrivateReadOnlyAlt = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnlyAlt"
	MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple" #WARNING: this starts with a capital letter, so is a constant
	attr_accessor :MyPropSimple #note: value set in 'initialize' method
	attr_reader :MyPropReadOnlySimple #note: value set in 'initialize' method

	def self.MyClassMethod()
		p "MyClassMethod"
	end

	def self.MyClassProp #getter
		p "MyClassProp_Get"
		p ["MyClassPropPrivate:", @@MyClassPropPrivate]
		return @@MyClassPropPrivate
	end
	def self.MyClassProp=(vValue) #setter
		p "MyClassProp_Set"
		return @@MyClassPropPrivate = vValue
	end
	def self.MyClassPropReadOnly #getter
		p "MyClassPropReadOnly_Get"
		p ["MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", @@MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly]
		return @@MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly
	end

	#note: equivalent to 'MyClassProp'/'MyClassPropReadOnly'
	#note: by using 'class << self', we can omit 'self.'
	class << self
		def MyClassPropAlt #getter
			p "MyClassPropAlt_Get"
			p ["MyClassPropPrivateAlt:", @@MyClassPropPrivateAlt]
			return @@MyClassPropPrivateAlt
		end
		def MyClassPropAlt=(vValue) #setter
			p "MyClassPropAlt_Set"
			return @@MyClassPropPrivateAlt = vValue
		end
		def MyClassPropReadOnlyAlt #getter
			p "MyClassPropReadOnlyAlt_Get"
			p ["MyClassPropPrivateReadOnlyAlt:", @@MyClassPropPrivateReadOnlyAlt]
			return @@MyClassPropPrivateReadOnlyAlt
		end
	end

	#WARNING: this would modify @MyClassPropAlt, not @@MyClassPropAlt:
	#WARNING: this would modify @MyClassPropReadOnlyAlt, not @@MyClassPropReadOnlyAlt:
	#note: this could be useful for storing information that is intended to be accessible only to class methods:
	#... (although such information could still be retrieved via MyClass.instance_variables abd MyClass.instance_variable_get):
	#class << self
	#	attr_accessor :MyClassPropAlt
	#	attr_reader :MyClassPropReadOnlyAlt
	#end

	def initialize(vDummy1="", vDummy2="")
		#setting values for properties:
		#WARNING: setting these values at the top of the class, would assign to the class object, not instance objects:
		@MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
		@MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly"
		@MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple"
		@MyPropReadOnlySimple = "MyPropReadOnlySimple"
		@@MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple"
		@@MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple"

		p "constructor"
		@@MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
		@MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
		ObjectSpace.define_finalizer(self, self.class.method(:finalize).to_proc) #specify destructor
	end

	def MyMethod(vDummy1="", vDummy2="")
		p "MyMethod"
		p ["MyClassPropPrivate:", @@MyClassPropPrivate]
		p ["MyPropPrivate:", @MyPropPrivate]
	end

	def MyProp #getter (note: a standard method)
		p "MyProp_Get"
		return @MyPropPrivate
	end
	def MyProp=(vValue) #setter (note: the '=')
		p "MyProp_Set"
		return @MyPropPrivate = vValue
	end
	def MyPropReadOnly #getter (note: a standard method)
		p "MyPropReadOnly_Get"
		return @MyPropPrivateReadOnly
	end

	def MyClass.finalize(id)
		p "destructor"
	end
end

MyClass.MyClassMethod()
puts "\n"

vProp = MyClass.MyClassProp
p ["ret:", vProp]
puts "\n"

oObj = MyClass.new()
puts "\n"

oObj.MyMethod()
puts "\n"

vProp = oObj.MyPropReadOnly
p ["ret:", vProp]
vProp = oObj.MyProp
p ["ret:", vProp]
oObj.MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew"
vProp = oObj.MyProp
p ["ret:", vProp]
puts "\n"

vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
p ["ret:", vProp]
oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew"
vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
p ["ret:", vProp]
puts "\n"

#additional test code:
#p MyClass::MyClassPropReadOnlySimple

oObj = nil
GC.start
p "the end"

#==============================

#demonstrating accessor shorthand:
#attr_reader
#attr_writer
#attr_accessor

#the following 5 classes are equivalent:

class MyClassA
	def MyProp
		@MyProp
	end
	def MyProp=(vValue)
		@MyProp = vValue
	end
end

class MyClassB
	attr_reader :MyProp
	def MyProp=(vValue)
		@MyProp = vValue
	end
end

class MyClassC
	def MyProp
		@MyProp
	end
	attr_writer :MyProp
end

class MyClassD
	attr_reader :MyProp
	attr_writer :MyProp
end

class MyClassE
	attr_accessor :MyProp
end

oObj1 = MyClassA.new()
oObj2 = MyClassB.new()
oObj3 = MyClassC.new()
oObj4 = MyClassD.new()
oObj5 = MyClassE.new()

p oObj1.MyProp
oObj1.MyProp = 123
p oObj1.MyProp

p oObj2.MyProp
oObj2.MyProp = 123
p oObj2.MyProp

p oObj3.MyProp
oObj3.MyProp = 123
p oObj3.MyProp

p oObj4.MyProp
oObj4.MyProp = 123
p oObj4.MyProp

p oObj5.MyProp
oObj5.MyProp = 123
p oObj5.MyProp

==================================================

[Rust]

//WARNING: no class ('static') properties/methods or workarounds in this demo (except MyClassPropReadOnlySimple):

#![allow(non_snake_case)]

mod MyModule
{
	pub struct MyClassInModule
	{
		MyPropPrivate: String,
		MyPropPrivateReadOnly: String,
		pub MyPropSimple: String
	}
	impl MyClassInModule
	{
		pub fn new() -> MyClassInModule
		{
			MyClassInModule
			{
				MyPropPrivate: "MyPropPrivate".to_string(),
				MyPropPrivateReadOnly: "MyPropPrivateReadOnly".to_string(),
				MyPropSimple: "MyPropSimple".to_string()
			}
		}
	}
}

//note: fields are private by default (to other modules), use 'pub' to make them public
struct MyClass
{
	MyPropPrivate: String,
	MyPropPrivateReadOnly: String,
	MyPropSimple: String
}
impl MyClass
{
	const MyClassPropReadOnlySimple: &str = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple"; //note: const variable names are typically written in upper case

	//fn new(vDummy1: &str, vDummy2: &str) -> MyClass //note: Rust lacks default values and function overloading
	fn new() -> MyClass
	{
		println!("{}", "constructor");
		MyClass
		{
			MyPropPrivate: "MyPropPrivate".to_string(),
			MyPropPrivateReadOnly: "MyPropPrivateReadOnly".to_string(),
			MyPropSimple: "MyPropSimple".to_string()
		}
	}

	//fn MyMethod(&self, vDummy1: &str, vDummy2: &str) //note: Rust lacks default values and function overloading
	fn MyMethod(&self)
	{
		println!("{}", "MyMethod");
		println!("{:?}", ("MyPropPrivate:", self.MyPropPrivate.clone()));
	}

	//WARNING: Rust lacks computed properties e.g. oObj.MyProp,
	//however, you can create ordinary oObj.MyProp properties:
	fn getMyProp(&self) -> String
	{
		println!("{:?}", "MyProp_Get");
		return self.MyPropPrivate.clone();
	}
	fn setMyProp(&mut self, vValue: String)
	{
		println!("{:?}", "MyProp_Set");
		self.MyPropPrivate = vValue;
	}
	fn getMyPropReadOnly(&self) -> String
	{
		println!("{:?}", "MyPropReadOnly_Get");
		return self.MyPropPrivateReadOnly.clone();
	}
}
impl Drop for MyClass
{
	fn drop(&mut self)
	{
		println!("{}", "destructor");
	}
}

fn main()
{
	let mut vProp = "".to_string();

	let mut oObj = MyClass::new();
	println!();

	//also works:
	//let oObj = MyClass
	//{
	//	MyPropPrivate: "MyPropPrivate".to_string(),
	//	MyPropPrivateReadOnly: "MyPropPrivateReadOnly".to_string(),
	//	MyPropSimple: "MyPropSimple".to_string()
	//};

	oObj.MyMethod();
	println!();

	vProp = oObj.getMyPropReadOnly().clone();
	println!("{:?}", ("ret:", vProp));
	vProp = oObj.getMyProp().clone();
	println!("{:?}", ("ret:", vProp));
	oObj.setMyProp("MyPropPrivateNew".to_string());
	vProp = oObj.getMyProp().clone();
	println!("{:?}", ("ret:", vProp));
	println!();

	vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple.clone();
	println!("{:?}", ("ret:", vProp));
	oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew".to_string();
	vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple.clone();
	println!("{:?}", ("ret:", vProp));
	println!();

	//additional test code:
	//println!("{}", oObj.MyPropSimple);
	//println!("{}", oObj.MyPropPrivate);
	//println!("{}", MyClass::MyClassPropReadOnlySimple);

	//additional test code:
	//let oObj2 = MyModule::MyClassInModule::new();
	//println!("{}", oObj2.MyPropSimple);
	//println!("{}", oObj2.MyPropPrivate); //error as expected: 'field `MyPropPrivate` of struct `MyClassInModule` is private'

	drop(oObj);
	println!("{:?}", "the end");
}

==================================================

[Scala]

//companion object for MyClass (for creating 'class' variables):
object MyClass
{
	private var MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
	private var MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly"
	var MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple"
	val MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple"

	def MyClassMethod(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyClassMethod")
	}

	def MyClassProp: String =
	{
		println("MyClassProp_Get")
		println(("MyClassPropPrivate:", this.MyClassPropPrivate))
		return this.MyClassPropPrivate
	}
	def MyClassProp_=(vValue: String): String =
	{
		println("MyClassProp_Set")
		this.MyClassPropPrivate = vValue
		return vValue
	}
	def MyClassPropReadOnly: String =
	{
		println("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get")
		println(("MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", this.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly))
		return this.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly
	}
}

class MyClass(vDummy1: String="", vDummy2: String="")
{
	//constructor start:
	private var MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
	private var MyPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly"
	var MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple"
	val MyPropReadOnlySimple = "MyPropReadOnlySimple"

	println("constructor")
	MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
	this.MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
	//constructor end

	def MyMethod(vDummy1: String="", vDummy2: String=""): Unit =
	{
		println("MyMethod")
		println(("MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate))
		println(("MyPropPrivate:", this.MyPropPrivate))
	}

	def MyProp: String =
	{
		println("MyProp_Get")
		return this.MyPropPrivate
	}
	def MyProp_=(vValue: String): String =
	{
		println("MyProp_Set")
		this.MyPropPrivate = vValue
		return vValue
	}
	def MyPropReadOnly: String =
	{
		println("MyPropReadOnly_Get")
		return this.MyPropPrivateReadOnly
	}

	//no destructor
	//{
	//	println("destructor")
	//}
}

MyClass.MyClassMethod()
println()

var vProp = MyClass.MyClassProp
println(("ret:", vProp))
println()

var oObj = MyClass()
println()

oObj.MyMethod()
println()

vProp = oObj.MyPropReadOnly
println(("ret:", vProp))
vProp = oObj.MyProp
println(("ret:", vProp))
oObj.MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew"
vProp = oObj.MyProp
println(("ret:", vProp))
println()

vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
println(("ret:", vProp))
oObj.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew"
vProp = oObj.MyPropSimple
println(("ret:", vProp))
println()

//additional test code:
//println(MyClass.MyClassPropReadOnlySimple)
//println(oObj.MyPropReadOnlySimple)

oObj = null
println("the end")

==================================================

[SQL (SQLite)]

==================================================

[Swift]

class MyClass
{
	//note: subclasses can override class variables
	//note: subclasses can't override static variables
	static private var MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
	static private var MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly = "MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly"
	static var MyClassPropSimple = "MyClassPropSimple"
	static let MyClassPropReadOnlySimple = "MyClassPropReadOnlySimple"
	private var MyPropPrivate: String = "MyPropPrivate"
	private var MyPropPrivateReadOnly: String = "MyPropPrivateReadOnly"
	var MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimple"
	let MyPropReadOnlySimple = "MyPropReadOnlySimple"

	static func MyClassMethod()
	{
		print("MyClassMethod")
	}

	static var MyClassProp: String
	{
		get
		{
			print("MyClassProp_Get")
			print(["MyClassPropPrivate:", self.MyClassPropPrivate])
			return self.MyClassPropPrivate
		}
		set(vValue)
		{
			print("MyClassProp_Set")
			return self.MyClassPropPrivate = vValue
		}
	}
	static var MyClassPropReadOnly: String
	{
		get
		{
			print("MyClassPropReadOnly_Get")
			print(["MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly:", self.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly])
			return self.MyClassPropPrivateReadOnly
		}
	}

	init(_ vDummy1: String = "", _ vDummy2: String = "")
	{
		print("constructor")
		MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate = "MyClassPropPrivate"
		self.MyPropPrivate = "MyPropPrivate"
	}

	func MyMethod(_ vDummy1: String = "", _ vDummy2: String = "") -> ()
	{
		print("MyMethod")
		print(["MyClassPropPrivate:", MyClass.MyClassPropPrivate])
		print(["MyPropPrivate:", self.MyPropPrivate])
	}

	var MyProp: String
	{
		get
		{
			print("MyProp_Get")
			return self.MyPropPrivate
		}
		set(vValue)
		{
			print("MyProp_Set")
			return self.MyPropPrivate = vValue
		}
	}
	var MyPropReadOnly: String
	{
		get
		{
			print("MyPropReadOnly_Get")
			return self.MyPropPrivateReadOnly
		}
	}

	deinit
	{
		print("destructor")
	}
}

MyClass.MyClassMethod()
print()

var vProp = MyClass.MyClassProp
print(["ret:", vProp])
print()

//var oObj = MyClass() //note: can't be assigned nil
var oObj: MyClass? = MyClass() //note: can be assigned nil, but requires using 'oObj!' instead of 'oObj'
print()

oObj!.MyMethod()
print()

vProp = oObj!.MyPropReadOnly
print(["ret:", vProp])
vProp = oObj!.MyProp
print(["ret:", vProp])
oObj!.MyProp = "MyPropPrivateNew"
vProp = oObj!.MyProp
print(["ret:", vProp])
print()

vProp = oObj!.MyPropSimple
print(["ret:", vProp])
oObj!.MyPropSimple = "MyPropSimpleNew"
vProp = oObj!.MyPropSimple
print(["ret:", vProp])
print()

//additional test code:
//print(MyClass.MyClassPropReadOnlySimple)
//print(oObj!.MyPropReadOnlySimple)

oObj = nil
print("the end")

==================================================

Class Examples: Rectangle UFL: ClassDemoRectangle [custom Rectangle class demonstrating methods/properties][see also: ClassPropComputed]

[AutoHotkey]

#Requires AutoHotkey v2+

class Rectangle
{
	__New(vWidth, vHeight)
	{
		this.width := vWidth
		this.height := vHeight
	}
	;read-only properties long-form:
	;area
	;{
	;	get
	;	{
	;		return this.calcArea()
	;	}
	;}
	;perimeter
	;{
	;	get
	;	{
	;		return this.calcPerimeter()
	;	}
	;}
	;read-only properties short-form:
	area => this.calcArea()
	perimeter => this.calcPerimeter()
	calcArea()
	{
		return this.width * this.height
	}
	calcPerimeter()
	{
		return (this.width + this.height) * 2
	}
}

oRect := Rectangle(10, 2) ;note: 'new' keyword needed in AutoHotkey v1
MsgBox(oRect.area) ;20
MsgBox(oRect.perimeter) ;24
MsgBox(oRect.calcArea()) ;20
MsgBox(oRect.calcPerimeter()) ;24

[C++]

#include <iostream>

template<typename T=char[]> void myprint(T const& vVar="") {std::cout << (vVar) << "\n";}

class Rectangle
{
	private:
	int width;
	int height;

	public:
	Rectangle(int vWidth, int vHeight)
	{
		this->width = vWidth;
		this->height = vHeight;
	}

	int getArea()
	{
		return this->calcArea();
	}
	int getPerimeter()
	{
		return this->calcPerimeter();
	}

	int calcArea()
	{
		return this->width * this->height;
	}
	int calcPerimeter()
	{
		return (this->width + this->height) * 2;
	}
};

int main()
{
	auto oRect = new Rectangle(10, 2);
	myprint(oRect->getArea()); //20
	myprint(oRect->getPerimeter()); //24
	myprint(oRect->calcArea()); //20
	myprint(oRect->calcPerimeter()); //24
}

[C#]

using System;

public class Rectangle
{
	int width;
	int height;
	public Rectangle(int vWidth, int vHeight)
	{
		this.width = vWidth;
		this.height = vHeight;
	}
	public int area
	{
		get {return this.calcArea();}
	}
	public int perimeter
	{
		get {return this.calcPerimeter();}
	}
	public int calcArea()
	{
		return this.width * this.height;
	}
	public int calcPerimeter()
	{
		return (this.width + this.height) * 2;
	}
}

public class Program
{
	public static void Main()
	{
		var oRect = new Rectangle(10, 2);
		Console.WriteLine(oRect.area); //20
		Console.WriteLine(oRect.perimeter); //24
		Console.WriteLine(oRect.calcArea()); //20
		Console.WriteLine(oRect.calcPerimeter()); //24
	}
}

[Crystal]

class Rectangle
	def initialize(vWidth : Int32, vHeight : Int32)
		@width = vWidth
		@height = vHeight
	end

	def area #getter (note: a standard method)
		return self.calcArea()
	end
	def area=(vValue : Int32) #setter
		return "ERROR"
	end

	def perimeter #getter (note: a standard method)
		return calcPerimeter()
	end
	def perimeter=(vValue : Int32) #setter
		return "ERROR"
	end

	def calcArea()
		return @width * @height
	end

	def calcPerimeter()
		return (@width + @height) * 2
	end
end

oRect = Rectangle.new(10, 2)
p oRect.area #20
p oRect.perimeter #24
p oRect.calcArea() #20
p oRect.calcPerimeter() #24

[Excel]

[Excel VBA]

'==============================

'class modules:

'note: comes with 2 trivial demo class modules:
'Rectangle [with properties: Area/Perimeter, and functions: calcArea/calcPerimeter]
'StringFuncsClass [with function: Lower]

'to create a class module:
'Alt+F11 to open the VBA editor
'Insert, Class Module
'this creates a module, e.g. 'Class1'
'click the treeview item, e.g. 'Class1'
'next to '(Name)', click the label, e.g. 'Class1', to rename the module
'e.g. 'Rectangle'/'StringFuncsClass'

'==============================

'code in StringFuncsClass class module:

Public Static Function Lower(vText)
    Lower = LCase(vText)
End Function

'==============================

'code in Rectangle class module:

Private m_Width
Private m_Height
Property Get Area()
    'Area = calcArea()
    Area = m_Width * m_Height
End Property
Property Get Perimeter()
    'Perimeter = calcPerimeter()
    Perimeter = (m_Width + m_Height) * 2
End Property
Sub InitValues(vWidth, vHeight)
    m_Width = vWidth
    m_Height = vHeight
End Sub
Public Function calcArea()
    calcArea = m_Width * m_Height
End Function
Public Function calcPerimeter()
    calcPerimeter = (m_Width + m_Height) * 2
End Function

'==============================

'note: see custom Rectangle class module

'e.g. code to put in a macro:

Dim oRect As New Rectangle
Call oRect.InitValues(10, 2)
Debug.Print (oRect.Area) '20
Debug.Print (oRect.Perimeter) '24
Debug.Print (oRect.calcArea()) '20
Debug.Print (oRect.calcPerimeter()) '24

'==============================

[Go]

package main

import "fmt"

type Rectangle struct {
	width  int
	height int
}

func (oObj *Rectangle) calcArea() int {
	return oObj.width * oObj.height
}
func (oObj *Rectangle) calcPerimeter() int {
	return (oObj.width + oObj.height) * 2
}

func main() {
	oObj := Rectangle{10, 2}
	fmt.Println(oObj.calcArea())      //20
	fmt.Println(oObj.calcPerimeter()) //24
}

[Java]

class Rectangle
{
	int width;
	int height;
	public Rectangle(int vWidth, int vHeight)
	{
		this.width = vWidth;
		this.height = vHeight;
	}

	//WARNING: Java lacks computed properties e.g. oObj.MyProp,
	//the convention is getXXX() and setXXX() methods,
	//however, you can create ordinary oObj.MyProp properties:
	//e.g. public String MyPropSimple = "MyProp";
	public int getArea()
	{
		return this.calcArea();
	}
	public int getPerimeter()
	{
		return this.calcPerimeter();
	}

	public int calcArea()
	{
		return this.width * this.height;
	}
	public int calcPerimeter()
	{
		return (this.width + this.height) * 2;
	}
}

//class HelloWorld
class Main
{
	public static void main(String[] args)
	{
		var oRect = new Rectangle(10, 2);
		//System.out.println(oRect.area); //20
		//System.out.println(oRect.perimeter); //24
		System.out.println(oRect.getArea()); //20
		System.out.println(oRect.getPerimeter()); //24
		System.out.println(oRect.calcArea()); //20
		System.out.println(oRect.calcPerimeter()); //24
	}
}

[JavaScript]

class Rectangle
{
	constructor(vWidth, vHeight)
	{
		this.width = vWidth;
		this.height = vHeight;
	}
	get area()
	{
		return this.calcArea();
	}
	get perimeter()
	{
		return this.calcPerimeter();
	}
	calcArea()
	{
		return this.width * this.height;
	}
	calcPerimeter()
	{
		return (this.width + this.height) * 2;
	}
}

oRect = new Rectangle(10, 2);
console.log(oRect.area); //20
console.log(oRect.perimeter); //24
console.log(oRect.calcArea()); //20
console.log(oRect.calcPerimeter()); //24

[Kotlin]

class Rectangle
{
	var width: Int
	var height: Int
	constructor(vWidth: Int, vHeight: Int)
	{
		this.width = vWidth
		this.height = vHeight
	}
	var area: Int = 0
		get()
		{
			return this.calcArea()
		}
		private set
	var perimeter: Int = 0
		get()
		{
			return this.calcPerimeter()
		}
		private set
	fun calcArea() : Int
	{
		return this.width * this.height
	}
	fun calcPerimeter() : Int
	{
		return (this.width + this.height) * 2
	}
}

fun main()
{
	var oRect = Rectangle(10, 2)
	println(oRect.area) //20
	println(oRect.perimeter) //24
	println(oRect.calcArea()) //20
	println(oRect.calcPerimeter()) //24
}

[PHP]

class Rectangle
{
	private $width;
	private $height;
	public function __construct($vWidth, $vHeight)
	{
		$this->width = $vWidth;
		$this->height = $vHeight;
	}
	public function __get($vProp) //for property getters
	{
		if ($vProp == "area")
			return $this->calcArea();
		else if ($vProp == "perimeter")
			return $this->calcPerimeter();
	}
	public function calcArea()
	{
		return $this->width * $this->height;
	}
	public function calcPerimeter()
	{
		return ($this->width + $this->height) * 2;
	}
}

$oRect = new Rectangle(10, 2);
var_dump($oRect->area); //20
var_dump($oRect->perimeter); //24
var_dump($oRect->calcArea()); //20
var_dump($oRect->calcPerimeter()); //24

[Python]

class Rectangle:
	def __init__(self, vWidth, vHeight):
		self.width = vWidth
		self.height = vHeight

	@property
	def area(self):
		return self.calcArea()
	@area.setter
	def area(self, value):
		return "ERROR"

	@property
	def perimeter(self):
		return self.calcPerimeter()
	@perimeter.setter
	def perimeter(self, value):
		return "ERROR"

	def calcArea(self):
		return self.width * self.height

	def calcPerimeter(self):
		return (self.width + self.height) * 2

oRect = Rectangle(10, 2)
print(oRect.area) #20
print(oRect.perimeter) #24
print(oRect.calcArea()) #20
print(oRect.calcPerimeter()) #24

[R]

#note: a reference class (not an S3 or S4 class):
Rectangle = setRefClass(
	"Rectangle",

	fields = list(
	width = "numeric",
	height = "numeric"
	),

	methods = list(
	initialize = function(width, height)
	{
		#note: '<<-': the global assignment operator:
		width <<- width
		height <<- height
	},
	calcArea = function()
	{
		width * height
	},
	calcPerimeter = function()
	{
		(width + height) * 2
	}
	)
)

oRect = Rectangle$new(10, 2)
print(oRect$calcArea()) #20
print(oRect$calcPerimeter()) #24

[Ruby]

class Rectangle
	def initialize(vWidth, vHeight)
		@width = vWidth
		@height = vHeight
	end

	def area #getter (note: a standard method)
		return self.calcArea()
	end
	def area=(vValue) #setter
		return "ERROR"
	end

	def perimeter #getter (note: a standard method)
		return calcPerimeter()
	end
	def perimeter=(vValue) #setter
		return "ERROR"
	end

	def calcArea()
		return @width * @height
	end

	def calcPerimeter()
		return (@width + @height) * 2
	end
end

oRect = Rectangle.new(10, 2)
p oRect.area #20
p oRect.perimeter #24
p oRect.calcArea() #20
p oRect.calcPerimeter() #24

[Rust]

struct Rectangle
{
	width: i32,
	height: i32
}
impl Rectangle
{
	fn new(vWidth: i32, vHeight: i32) -> Rectangle
	{
		Rectangle
		{
			width: vWidth,
			height: vHeight
		}
	}
	fn calcArea(&self) -> i32
	{
		return self.width * self.height;
	}
	fn calcPerimeter(&self) -> i32
	{
		return (self.width + self.height) * 2;
	}
}

fn main()
{
	let oRect = Rectangle::new(10, 2);
	println!("{}", oRect.calcArea()); //20
	println!("{}", oRect.calcPerimeter()); //24

	let oRect2 = Rectangle{width:10, height:2};
	println!("{}", oRect2.calcArea()); //20
	println!("{}", oRect2.calcPerimeter()); //24
}

[Scala]

class Rectangle(vWidth: Int, vHeight: Int)
{
	//constructor start:
	private var width = vWidth
	private var height = vHeight
	//constructor end

	def area: Int =
	{
		return this.calcArea()
	}
	def perimeter: Int =
	{
		this.calcPerimeter()
	}
	def calcArea(): Int =
	{
		return this.width * this.height
	}
	def calcPerimeter(): Int =
	{
		return (this.width + this.height) * 2
	}
}

var oRect = Rectangle(10, 2)
println(oRect.area) //20
println(oRect.perimeter) //24
println(oRect.calcArea()) //20
println(oRect.calcPerimeter()) //24

[SQL (SQLite)]

[Swift]

class Rectangle
{
	private var width: Int
	private var height: Int

	init(_ vWidth: Int, _ vHeight: Int)
	{
		self.width = vWidth
		self.height = vHeight
	}
	var area: Int
	{
		get
		{
			return self.calcArea()
		}
	}
	var perimeter: Int
	{
		get
		{
			return self.calcPerimeter()
		}
	}
	func calcArea() -> Int
	{
		return self.width * self.height
	}
	func calcPerimeter() -> Int
	{
		return (self.width + self.height) * 2
	}
}

var oRect = Rectangle(10, 2)
print(oRect.area) //20
print(oRect.perimeter) //24
print(oRect.calcArea()) //20
print(oRect.calcPerimeter()) //24

Class Examples: Access Modifiers (public/private/protected) (child class) UFL: ClassDemoModifiers [custom classes demonstrating public/private/protected modifiers applied to class ('static') methods and instance methods, and a subclass (child class) inheriting from a superclass (parent class)][see also: ClassPublic/ClassPrivate/ClassProtected/ClassSubclass] note: if a method is commented out, it is typically because it will fail (as expected), if uncommented

==================================================

[AutoHotkey]

#Requires AutoHotkey v2+

myprint := (vVar:="") => A_Clipboard .= String(vVar) "`r`n"

class MyClass
{
	static MyClassMethodDefault()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodDefault")
	}
	static MyClassMethodPublic()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodPublic")
	}

	MyMethodDefault()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodDefault")
	}
	MyMethodPublic()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodPublic")
	}

	static CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
	}
}

class MyChildClass extends MyClass
{
	static MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodDefaultChild")
	}
	static MyClassMethodPublicChild()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodPublicChild")
	}

	MyMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodDefaultChild")
	}
	MyMethodPublicChild()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodPublicChild")
	}

	static CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
	}
}

vRet := MsgBox("warning: will clear clipboard, then print to clipboard,`r`n" "continue?",, "YNC")
if (vRet != "Yes")
{
	MsgBox("early exit")
	return
}
A_Clipboard := ""

MyClass.CallMethods()
myprint()

MyChildClass.CallMethods()
myprint()

MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
myprint()

MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild()
myprint()

oObj1 := MyClass()
oObj1.MyMethodDefault()
oObj1.MyMethodPublic()
myprint()

oObj2 := MyChildClass()
oObj2.MyMethodDefault()
oObj2.MyMethodPublic()
oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild()
oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild()
myprint()

myprint("the end")
MsgBox("the end")

==================================================

[C++]

#include <iostream>

template<typename T=char[]> void myprint(T const& vVar="") {std::cout << (vVar) << "\n";}

class MyClass
{
	static void MyClassMethodDefault()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodDefault");
	}

	void MyMethodDefault()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodDefault");
	}

	public:
	static void MyClassMethodPublic()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodPublic");
	}
	private:
	static void MyClassMethodPrivate()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodPrivate");
	}
	protected:
	static void MyClassMethodProtected()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodProtected");
	}

	public:
	void MyMethodPublic()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodPublic");
	}
	private:
	void MyMethodPrivate()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodPrivate");
	}
	protected:
	void MyMethodProtected()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodProtected");
	}

	public:
	static void CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass::MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodPublic();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodProtected();
	}
};

class MyChildClass: public MyClass
{
	static void MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodDefaultChild");
	}

	void MyMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodDefaultChild");
	}

	public:
	static void MyClassMethodPublicChild()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodPublicChild");
	}
	private:
	static void MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	protected:
	static void MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		myprint("MyClassMethodProtectedChild");
	}

	public:
	void MyMethodPublicChild()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodPublicChild");
	}
	private:
	void MyMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	protected:
	void MyMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		myprint("MyMethodProtectedChild");
	}

	public:
	static void CallMethods()
	{
		//MyClass::MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodPublic();
		//MyClass::MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodProtected();
	}
};

int main()
{
	MyClass::CallMethods();
	myprint();

	MyChildClass::CallMethods();
	myprint();

	//MyClass::MyClassMethodDefault();
	MyClass::MyClassMethodPublic();
	//MyClass::MyClassMethodPrivate();
	//MyClass::MyClassMethodProtected();
	myprint();

	//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodDefault();
	MyChildClass::MyClassMethodPublic();
	//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodPrivate();
	//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodProtected();
	//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodDefaultChild();
	MyChildClass::MyClassMethodPublicChild();
	//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodPrivateChild();
	//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodProtectedChild();
	myprint();

	MyClass oObj1;
	//oObj1.MyMethodDefault();
	oObj1.MyMethodPublic();
	//oObj1.MyMethodPrivate();
	//oObj1.MyMethodProtected();
	myprint();

	MyChildClass oObj2;
	//oObj2.MyMethodDefault();
	oObj2.MyMethodPublic();
	//oObj2.MyMethodPrivate();
	//oObj2.MyMethodProtected();
	//oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild();
	oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild();
	//oObj2.MyMethodPrivateChild();
	//oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild();
	myprint();

	myprint("the end");
}

==================================================

[C#]

using System;

public class MyClass
{
	static void MyClassMethodDefault()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethodDefault");
	}
	static public void MyClassMethodPublic()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethodPublic");
	}
	static private void MyClassMethodPrivate()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethodPrivate");
	}
	static protected void MyClassMethodProtected()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethodProtected");
	}

	void MyMethodDefault()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethodDefault");
	}
	public void MyMethodPublic()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethodPublic");
	}
	private void MyMethodPrivate()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethodPrivate");
	}
	protected void MyMethodProtected()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethodProtected");
	}

	static public void CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected();
	}
}

public class MyChildClass : MyClass
{
	static void MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethodDefaultChild");
	}
	static public void MyClassMethodPublicChild()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethodPublicChild");
	}
	static private void MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	static protected void MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyClassMethodProtectedChild");
	}

	void MyMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethodDefaultChild");
	}
	public void MyMethodPublicChild()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethodPublicChild");
	}
	private void MyMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	protected void MyMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		Console.WriteLine("MyMethodProtectedChild");
	}

	static public void CallMethods()
	{
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected();
	}
}

public class Program
{
	public static void Main()
	{
		MyClass.CallMethods();
		Console.WriteLine();

		MyChildClass.CallMethods();
		Console.WriteLine();

		//MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate();
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected();
		Console.WriteLine();

		//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivate();
		//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtected();
		//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild();
		MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild();
		//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivateChild();
		//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtectedChild();
		Console.WriteLine();

		var oObj1 = new MyClass();
		//oObj1.MyMethodDefault();
		oObj1.MyMethodPublic();
		//oObj1.MyMethodPrivate();
		//oObj1.MyMethodProtected();
		Console.WriteLine();

		var oObj2 = new MyChildClass();
		//oObj2.MyMethodDefault();
		oObj2.MyMethodPublic();
		//oObj2.MyMethodPrivate();
		//oObj2.MyMethodProtected();
		//oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild();
		oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild();
		//oObj2.MyMethodPrivateChild();
		//oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild();
		Console.WriteLine();

		Console.WriteLine("the end");
	}
}

==================================================

[Crystal]

#WARNING: method names cannot begin with a upper-case letter
#note: 'self.' is used to define class methods
class MyClass
	def self.myClassMethodDefault()
		puts("myClassMethodDefault")
	end
	def self.myClassMethodPublic()
		puts("myClassMethodPublic")
	end
	private def self.myClassMethodPrivate()
		puts("myClassMethodPrivate")
	end
	protected def self.myClassMethodProtected()
		puts("myClassMethodProtected")
	end

	def myMethodDefault()
		puts("myMethodDefault")
	end
	def myMethodPublic()
		puts("myMethodPublic")
	end
	private def myMethodPrivate()
		puts("myMethodPrivate")
	end
	protected def myMethodProtected()
		puts("myMethodProtected")
	end

	def self.callMethods()
		MyClass.myClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.myClassMethodPublic()
		#MyClass.myClassMethodPrivate() #error: so we use self instead:
		self.myClassMethodPrivate()
		MyClass.myClassMethodProtected()
	end
end

class MyChildClass < MyClass
	def self.myClassMethodDefaultChild()
		puts("myClassMethodDefaultChild")
	end
	def self.myClassMethodPublicChild()
		puts("myClassMethodPublicChild")
	end
	private def self.myClassMethodPrivateChild()
		puts("myClassMethodPrivateChild")
	end
	protected def self.myClassMethodProtectedChild()
		puts("myClassMethodProtectedChild")
	end

	def myMethodDefaultChild()
		puts("myMethodDefaultChild")
	end
	def myMethodPublicChild()
		puts("myMethodPublicChild")
	end
	private def myMethodPrivateChild()
		puts("myMethodPrivateChild")
	end
	protected def myMethodProtectedChild()
		puts("myMethodProtectedChild")
	end

	def self.callMethods()
		MyClass.myClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.myClassMethodPublic()
		#MyClass.myClassMethodPrivate()
		MyClass.myClassMethodProtected()
	end
end

MyClass.callMethods()
puts()

MyChildClass.callMethods()
puts()

MyClass.myClassMethodDefault()
MyClass.myClassMethodPublic()
#MyClass.myClassMethodPrivate()
#MyClass.myClassMethodProtected()
puts()

MyChildClass.myClassMethodDefault()
MyChildClass.myClassMethodPublic()
#MyChildClass.myClassMethodPrivate()
#MyChildClass.myClassMethodProtected()
MyChildClass.myClassMethodDefaultChild()
MyChildClass.myClassMethodPublicChild()
#MyChildClass.myClassMethodPrivateChild()
#MyChildClass.myClassMethodProtectedChild()
puts()

oObj1 = MyClass.new()
oObj1.myMethodDefault()
oObj1.myMethodPublic()
#oObj1.myMethodPrivate()
#oObj1.myMethodProtected()
puts()

oObj2 = MyChildClass.new()
oObj2.myMethodDefault()
oObj2.myMethodPublic()
#oObj2.myMethodPrivate()
#oObj2.myMethodProtected()
oObj2.myMethodDefaultChild()
oObj2.myMethodPublicChild()
#oObj2.myMethodPrivateChild()
#oObj2.myMethodProtectedChild()
puts()

puts("the end")

==================================================

[Excel]

==================================================

[Excel VBA]

''MyClass' class module:
'to create a class module:
'Alt+F11 to open the VBA editor
'Insert, Class Module
'this creates a module, e.g. 'Class1'
'click the treeview item, e.g. 'Class1'
'next to '(Name)', click the label, e.g. 'Class1', to rename the module
'e.g. 'MyClass'

''MyClass' class module:

Static Function MyClassMethodDefault()
    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethodDefault")
End Function
Public Static Function MyClassMethodPublic()
    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethodPublic")
End Function
Private Static Function MyClassMethodPrivate()
    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethodPrivate")
End Function
'Protected Static Function MyClassMethodProtected() 'note: protected not available
'    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethodProtected")
'End Function

Function MyMethodDefault()
    Debug.Print ("MyMethodDefault")
End Function
Public Function MyMethodPublic()
    Debug.Print ("MyMethodPublic")
End Function
Private Function MyMethodPrivate()
    Debug.Print ("MyMethodPrivate")
End Function
'Protected Function MyMethodProtected() 'note: protected not available
'    Debug.Print ("MyMethodProtected")
'End Function

Static Function CallMethods()
'Dim MyClass As MyClass
Set MyClass = New MyClass
MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault
MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic
'MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate 'error
'MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected 'note: skipped
End Function

'==============================

''MyChildClass' class module:

Static Function MyClassMethodDefaultAlt()
'Dim MyClass As MyClass
Set MyClass = New MyClass
    MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault
End Function
Public Static Function MyClassMethodPublicAlt()
'Dim MyClass As MyClass
Set MyClass = New MyClass
    MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic
End Function

Static Function MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethodDefaultChild")
End Function
Public Static Function MyClassMethodPublicChild()
    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethodPublicChild")
End Function
'Private Static Function MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
'    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethodPrivateChild")
'End Function
'Protected Static Function MyClassMethodProtectedChild() 'note: protected not available
'    Debug.Print ("MyClassMethodProtectedChild")
'End Function

Function MyMethodDefaultChild()
    Debug.Print ("MyMethodDefaultChild")
End Function
Public Function MyMethodPublicChild()
    Debug.Print ("MyMethodPublicChild")
End Function
Private Function MyMethodPrivateChild()
    Debug.Print ("MyMethodPrivateChild")
End Function
'Protected Function MyMethodProtectedChild() 'note: protected not available
'    Debug.Print ("MyMethodProtectedChild")
'End Function

Static Function CallMethods()
'Dim MyChildClass As MyChildClass
Set MyChildClass = New MyChildClass
'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault 'error
'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic 'error
'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivate 'error
'MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected 'note: skipped
End Function

'==============================

'e.g. a macro:

Sub Macro1()
'
' Macro1 Macro
'

'

'Dim MyClass As MyClass
Set MyClass = New MyClass
'Dim MyChildClass As MyChildClass
Set MyChildClass = New MyChildClass

MyClass.CallMethods
Debug.Print

MyChildClass.CallMethods
Debug.Print

MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault
MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic
'MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate
'MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected 'note: skipped
Debug.Print

'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault 'error
'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic 'error
'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivate
'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtected 'note: skipped
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild
'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivateChild
'MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtectedChild 'note: skipped
Debug.Print

'Dim oObj1 As New MyClass
Set oObj1 = New MyClass
oObj1.MyMethodDefault
oObj1.MyMethodPublic
'oObj1.MyMethodPrivate
'oObj1.MyMethodProtected
Debug.Print

'Dim oObj2 As New MyChildClass
Set oObj2 = New MyChildClass
'oObj2.MyMethodDefault 'error
'oObj2.MyMethodPublic 'error
'oObj2.MyMethodPrivate
'oObj2.MyMethodProtected
oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild
oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild
'oObj2.MyMethodPrivateChild
'oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild
Debug.Print

Debug.Print "the end"
End Sub

==================================================

[Go]

//WARNING: no class ('static') properties/methods or workarounds in this demo:
//note: a form of inheritance is possible in Go:

package main

import "fmt"

func main() {
	oObj1 := MyClassInterface(&MyClass{})
	//oObj1 := MyClass{} //an alternative
	oObj1.MyMethod()
	fmt.Println()

	oObj2 := MyChildClass{MyClass{}}
	oObj2.MyMethod()
	oObj2.MyMethodChild()
	fmt.Println()

	fmt.Println("the end")
}

//==============================

type MyClass struct {
}
type MyClassInterface interface {
	MyMethod()
}

// WARNING: use '*' for the receiver to modify the object (by reference), omit it to clone the object (by value):
func (oObj *MyClass) MyMethod() {
	fmt.Println("MyMethod")
}

//==============================

type MyChildClass struct {
	MyClass
}
type MyChildClassInterface interface {
	MyMethodChild()
}

// WARNING: use '*' for the receiver to modify the object (by reference), omit it to clone the object (by value):
func (oObj *MyChildClass) MyMethodChild() {
	fmt.Println("MyMethodChild")
}

==================================================

[Java]

class MyClass
{
	static void MyClassMethodDefault()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethodDefault");
	}
	static public void MyClassMethodPublic()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethodPublic");
	}
	static private void MyClassMethodPrivate()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethodPrivate");
	}
	static protected void MyClassMethodProtected()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethodProtected");
	}

	void MyMethodDefault()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethodDefault");
	}
	public void MyMethodPublic()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethodPublic");
	}
	private void MyMethodPrivate()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethodPrivate");
	}
	protected void MyMethodProtected()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethodProtected");
	}

	static public void CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected();
	}
}

class MyChildClass extends MyClass
{
	static void MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethodDefaultChild");
	}
	static public void MyClassMethodPublicChild()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethodPublicChild");
	}
	static private void MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	static protected void MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		System.out.println("MyClassMethodProtectedChild");
	}

	void MyMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethodDefaultChild");
	}
	public void MyMethodPublicChild()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethodPublicChild");
	}
	private void MyMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	protected void MyMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		System.out.println("MyMethodProtectedChild");
	}

	static public void CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected();
	}
}

class Main
{
	public static void main(String[] args)
	{
		MyClass.CallMethods();
		System.out.println();

		MyChildClass.CallMethods();
		System.out.println();

		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected(); //WARNING: works (in most languages this would fail)
		System.out.println();

		MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtected(); //WARNING: works (in most languages this would fail)
		MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild();
		MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild();
		//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivateChild();
		MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtectedChild(); //WARNING: works (in most languages this would fail)
		System.out.println();

		var oObj1 = new MyClass();
		oObj1.MyMethodDefault();
		oObj1.MyMethodPublic();
		//oObj1.MyMethodPrivate();
		oObj1.MyMethodProtected(); //WARNING: works (in most languages this would fail)
		System.out.println();

		var oObj2 = new MyChildClass();
		oObj2.MyMethodDefault();
		oObj2.MyMethodPublic();
		//oObj2.MyMethodPrivate();
		oObj2.MyMethodProtected(); //WARNING: works (in most languages this would fail)
		oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild();
		oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild();
		//oObj2.MyMethodPrivateChild();
		oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild(); //WARNING: works (in most languages this would fail)
		System.out.println();

		System.out.println("the end");
	}
}

==================================================

[JavaScript]

class MyClass
{
	static MyClassMethodDefault()
	{
		console.log("MyClassMethodDefault");
	}
	static MyClassMethodPublic()
	{
		console.log("MyClassMethodPublic");
	}
	static #MyClassMethodPrivate()
	{
		console.log("MyClassMethodPrivate");
	}
	//static MyClassMethodProtected() //note: protected not available
	//{
	//	console.log("MyClassMethodProtected");
	//}

	MyMethodDefault()
	{
		console.log("MyMethodDefault");
	}
	MyMethodPublic()
	{
		console.log("MyMethodPublic");
	}
	#MyMethodPrivate()
	{
		console.log("MyMethodPrivate");
	}
	//MyMethodProtected() //note: protected not available
	//{
	//	console.log("MyMethodProtected");
	//}

	static CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		MyClass.#MyClassMethodPrivate();
	}
}

class MyChildClass extends MyClass
{
	static MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		console.log("MyClassMethodDefaultChild");
	}
	static MyClassMethodPublicChild()
	{
		console.log("MyClassMethodPublicChild");
	}
	static #MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		console.log("MyClassMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	//static MyClassMethodProtectedChild() //note: protected not available
	//{
	//	console.log("MyClassMethodProtectedChild");
	//}

	MyMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		console.log("MyMethodDefaultChild");
	}
	MyMethodPublicChild()
	{
		console.log("MyMethodPublicChild");
	}
	#MyMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		console.log("MyMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	//MyMethodProtectedChild() //note: protected not available
	//{
	//	console.log("MyMethodProtectedChild");
	//}

	static CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
		//MyClass.#MyClassMethodPrivate();
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected(); //note: skipped
	}
}

MyClass.CallMethods();
console.log();

MyChildClass.CallMethods();
console.log();

MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
//MyClass.#MyClassMethodPrivate();
//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected(); //note: skipped
console.log();

MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault();
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic();
//MyChildClass.#MyClassMethodPrivate();
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtected(); //note: skipped
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild();
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild();
//MyChildClass.#MyClassMethodPrivateChild();
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtectedChild(); //note: skipped
console.log();

oObj1 = new MyClass();
oObj1.MyMethodDefault();
oObj1.MyMethodPublic();
//oObj1.#MyMethodPrivate();
//oObj1.MyMethodProtected(); //note: skipped
console.log();

oObj2 = new MyChildClass();
oObj2.MyMethodDefault();
oObj2.MyMethodPublic();
//oObj2.#MyMethodPrivate();
//oObj2.MyMethodProtected(); //note: skipped
oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild();
oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild();
//oObj2.#MyMethodPrivateChild();
//oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild(); //note: skipped
console.log();

console.log("the end");

==================================================

[Kotlin]

open class MyClass //note: use the 'open' keyword to allow subclasses
{
	companion object //note: use a companion object as a workaround for 'class'/'static' methods
	{
		fun MyClassMethodDefault()
		{
			println("MyClassMethodDefault")
		}
		public fun MyClassMethodPublic()
		{
			println("MyClassMethodPublic")
		}
		private fun MyClassMethodPrivate()
		{
			println("MyClassMethodPrivate")
		}
		//curio: 'protected' fails:
		//error: Using protected members which are not @JvmStatic in the superclass companion is unsupported yet
		//protected fun MyClassMethodProtected()
		//{
		//	println("MyClassMethodProtected")
		//}

		public fun CallMethods()
		{
			MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
			MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
			MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
			//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected() //note: skipped
		}
	}

	fun MyMethodDefault()
	{
		println("MyMethodDefault")
	}
	public fun MyMethodPublic()
	{
		println("MyMethodPublic")
	}
	private fun MyMethodPrivate()
	{
		println("MyMethodPrivate")
	}
	protected fun MyMethodProtected()
	{
		println("MyMethodProtected")
	}
}

class MyChildClass : MyClass()
{
	companion object
	{
		fun MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
		{
			println("MyClassMethodDefaultChild")
		}
		public fun MyClassMethodPublicChild()
		{
			println("MyClassMethodPublicChild")
		}
		private fun MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
		{
			println("MyClassMethodPrivateChild")
		}
		protected fun MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
		{
			println("MyClassMethodProtectedChild")
		}

		public fun CallMethods()
		{
			MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
			MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
			//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
			//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected() //note: skipped
		}
	}

	fun MyMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		println("MyMethodDefaultChild")
	}
	public fun MyMethodPublicChild()
	{
		println("MyMethodPublicChild")
	}
	private fun MyMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		println("MyMethodPrivateChild")
	}
	protected fun MyMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		println("MyMethodProtectedChild")
	}
}

fun main()
{
	MyClass.CallMethods()
	println()

	MyChildClass.CallMethods()
	println()

	MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
	MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
	//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
	//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected()
	println()

	//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault() //error
	//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic() //error
	//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
	//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtected()
	MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
	MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild()
	//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
	//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
	println()

	var oObj1 = MyClass()
	oObj1.MyMethodDefault()
	oObj1.MyMethodPublic()
	//oObj1.MyMethodPrivate()
	//oObj1.MyMethodProtected()
	println()

	var oObj2 = MyChildClass()
	oObj2.MyMethodDefault()
	oObj2.MyMethodPublic()
	//oObj2.MyMethodPrivate()
	//oObj2.MyMethodProtected()
	oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild()
	oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild()
	//oObj2.MyMethodPrivateChild()
	//oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild()
	println()

	println("the end")
}

==================================================

[PHP]

<?php
class MyClass
{
	static function MyClassMethodDefault()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethodDefault");
	}
	static public function MyClassMethodPublic()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethodPublic");
	}
	static private function MyClassMethodPrivate()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethodPrivate");
	}
	static protected function MyClassMethodProtected()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethodProtected");
	}

	function MyMethodDefault()
	{
		var_dump("MyMethodDefault");
	}
	public function MyMethodPublic()
	{
		var_dump("MyMethodPublic");
	}
	private function MyMethodPrivate()
	{
		var_dump("MyMethodPrivate");
	}
	protected function MyMethodProtected()
	{
		var_dump("MyMethodProtected");
	}

	static public function CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass::MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodPublic();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodProtected();
	}
}

class MyChildClass extends MyClass
{
	static function MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethodDefaultChild");
	}
	static public function MyClassMethodPublicChild()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethodPublicChild");
	}
	static private function MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	static protected function MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		var_dump("MyClassMethodProtectedChild");
	}

	function MyMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		var_dump("MyMethodDefaultChild");
	}
	public function MyMethodPublicChild()
	{
		var_dump("MyMethodPublicChild");
	}
	private function MyMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		var_dump("MyMethodPrivateChild");
	}
	protected function MyMethodProtectedChild()
	{
		var_dump("MyMethodProtectedChild");
	}

	static public function CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass::MyClassMethodDefault();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodPublic();
		//MyClass::MyClassMethodPrivate();
		MyClass::MyClassMethodProtected();
	}
}

MyClass::CallMethods();
echo "\n";

MyChildClass::CallMethods();
echo "\n";

MyClass::MyClassMethodDefault();
MyClass::MyClassMethodPublic();
//MyClass::MyClassMethodPrivate();
//MyClass::MyClassMethodProtected();
echo "\n";

MyChildClass::MyClassMethodDefault();
MyChildClass::MyClassMethodPublic();
//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodPrivate();
//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodProtected();
MyChildClass::MyClassMethodDefaultChild();
MyChildClass::MyClassMethodPublicChild();
//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodPrivateChild();
//MyChildClass::MyClassMethodProtectedChild();
echo "\n";

$oObj1 = new MyClass();
$oObj1->MyMethodDefault();
$oObj1->MyMethodPublic();
//$oObj1->MyMethodPrivate();
//$oObj1->MyMethodProtected();
echo "\n";

$oObj2 = new MyChildClass();
$oObj2->MyMethodDefault();
$oObj2->MyMethodPublic();
//$oObj2->MyMethodPrivate();
//$oObj2->MyMethodProtected();
$oObj2->MyMethodDefaultChild();
$oObj2->MyMethodPublicChild();
//$oObj2->MyMethodPrivateChild();
//$oObj2->MyMethodProtectedChild();
echo "\n";

var_dump("the end");

==================================================

[Python]

class MyClass:
	@classmethod
	def MyClassMethodDefault(self):
		print("MyClassMethodDefault")
	@classmethod
	def MyClassMethodPublic(self):
		print("MyClassMethodPublic")

	def MyMethodDefault(self):
		print("MyMethodDefault")
	def MyMethodPublic(self):
		print("MyMethodPublic")

	@classmethod
	def CallMethods(self):
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
#end of class

class MyChildClass(MyClass):
	@classmethod
	def MyClassMethodDefaultChild(self):
		print("MyClassMethodDefaultChild")
	@classmethod
	def MyClassMethodPublicChild(self):
		print("MyClassMethodPublicChild")

	def MyMethodDefaultChild(self):
		print("MyMethodDefaultChild")
	def MyMethodPublicChild(self):
		print("MyMethodPublicChild")

	@classmethod
	def CallMethods(self):
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
#end of class

MyClass.CallMethods()
print()

MyChildClass.CallMethods()
print()

MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
print()

MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild()
print()

oObj1 = MyClass()
oObj1.MyMethodDefault()
oObj1.MyMethodPublic()
print()

oObj2 = MyChildClass()
oObj2.MyMethodDefault()
oObj2.MyMethodPublic()
oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild()
oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild()
print()

print("the end")

==================================================

[R]

#WARNING: no class ('static') methods or workarounds in this demo:
#note: child classes are demonstrated:

MyClass = setRefClass(
	"MyClass",

	methods = list(
	MyMethod = function()
	{
		print("MyMethod")
	}
	)
)

MyChildClass = setRefClass(
	"MyChildClass",

	contains="MyClass",

	methods = list(
	MyMethodChild = function()
	{
		print("MyMethodChild")
	}
	)
)

oObj1 = MyClass$new()
oObj2 = MyChildClass$new()

oObj1$MyMethod()
cat("\n")

oObj2$MyMethod()
oObj2$MyMethodChild()
cat("\n")

print("the end")

==================================================

[Ruby]

#WARNING: public/private/protected don't affect class methods
#note: class methods are public by default, and can be set to private, but not protected
#note: 'self.' is used to define class methods
class MyClass
	def self.MyClassMethodDefault()
		puts("MyClassMethodDefault")
	end
	def self.MyClassMethodPublic()
		puts("MyClassMethodPublic")
	end
	def self.MyClassMethodPrivate()
		puts("MyClassMethodPrivate")
	end
	private_class_method :MyClassMethodPrivate
	#def self.MyClassMethodProtected()
	#	puts("MyClassMethodProtected")
	#end

	def MyMethodDefault()
		puts("MyMethodDefault")
	end
	public
	def MyMethodPublic()
		puts("MyMethodPublic")
	end
	private
	def MyMethodPrivate()
		puts("MyMethodPrivate")
	end
	protected
	def MyMethodProtected()
		puts("MyMethodProtected")
	end

	def self.CallMethods()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
		#MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate() #error: so we use self instead:
		self.MyClassMethodPrivate()
		#MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected() #note: skipped
	end
end

class MyChildClass < MyClass
	def self.MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
		puts("MyClassMethodDefaultChild")
	end
	def self.MyClassMethodPublicChild()
		puts("MyClassMethodPublicChild")
	end
	def self.MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
		puts("MyClassMethodPrivateChild")
	end
	private_class_method :MyClassMethodPrivateChild
	#def self.MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
	#	puts("MyClassMethodProtectedChild")
	#end

	def MyMethodDefaultChild()
		puts("MyMethodDefaultChild")
	end
	public
	def MyMethodPublicChild()
		puts("MyMethodPublicChild")
	end
	private
	def MyMethodPrivateChild()
		puts("MyMethodPrivateChild")
	end
	protected
	def MyMethodProtectedChild()
		puts("MyMethodProtectedChild")
	end

	def self.CallMethods()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		#MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
	end
end

MyClass.CallMethods()
puts()

MyChildClass.CallMethods()
puts()

MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
#MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
#MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected()
puts()

MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
#MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
#MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtected()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild()
#MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
#MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
puts()

oObj1 = MyClass.new()
oObj1.MyMethodDefault()
oObj1.MyMethodPublic()
#oObj1.MyMethodPrivate()
#oObj1.MyMethodProtected()
puts()

oObj2 = MyChildClass.new()
oObj2.MyMethodDefault()
oObj2.MyMethodPublic()
#oObj2.MyMethodPrivate()
#oObj2.MyMethodProtected()
oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild()
oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild()
#oObj2.MyMethodPrivateChild()
#oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild()
puts()

puts("the end")

==================================================

[Rust]

//WARNING: no class ('static') methods or workarounds in this demo:
//note: child classes are demonstrated:

#![allow(non_snake_case)]

struct MyClass
{
}
impl MyClass
{
	fn new() -> MyClass
	{
		MyClass
		{
		}
	}
	fn MyMethod(&self)
	{
		println!("{}", "MyMethod");
	}
}

struct MyChildClass
{
	MyParent: MyClass
}
impl MyChildClass
{
	fn new() -> MyChildClass
	{
		MyChildClass
		{
			MyParent: MyClass{}
		}
	}
	fn MyMethod(&self)
	{
		self.MyParent.MyMethod();
	}
	fn MyMethodChild(&self)
	{
		println!("{}", "MyMethodChild");
	}
}

fn main()
{
	let mut oObj1 = MyClass::new();
	oObj1.MyMethod();
	println!();

	let mut oObj2 = MyChildClass::new();
	oObj2.MyMethod();
	oObj2.MyMethodChild();
	println!();

	println!("{:?}", "the end");
}

==================================================

[Scala]

//companion object for MyClass (for creating 'class' variables):
object MyClass
{
	def MyClassMethodDefault(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyClassMethodDefault")
	}
	def MyClassMethodPublic(): Unit = //note: no 'public' modifier
	{
		println("MyClassMethodPublic")
	}
	private def MyClassMethodPrivate(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyClassMethodPrivate")
	}
	protected def MyClassMethodProtected(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyClassMethodProtected")
	}

	def CallMethods(): Unit =
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected()
	}
}
class MyClass
{
	def MyMethodDefault(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyMethodDefault")
	}
	def MyMethodPublic(): Unit = //note: no 'public' modifier
	{
		println("MyMethodPublic")
	}
	private def MyMethodPrivate(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyMethodPrivate")
	}
	protected def MyMethodProtected(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyMethodProtected")
	}
}

object MyChildClass
{
	def MyClassMethodDefaultChild(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyClassMethodDefaultChild")
	}
	def MyClassMethodPublicChild(): Unit = //note: no 'public' modifier
	{
		println("MyClassMethodPublicChild")
	}
	private def MyClassMethodPrivateChild(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyClassMethodPrivateChild")
	}
	protected def MyClassMethodProtectedChild(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyClassMethodProtectedChild")
	}

	def CallMethods(): Unit =
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
		//error: method MyClassMethodProtected cannot be accessed as a member of Playground.MyClass.type from object MyChildClass.
		//error (continued): protected method MyClassMethodProtected can only be accessed from object MyClass in object Playground.
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected() //error
	}
}
class MyChildClass extends MyClass
{
	def MyMethodDefaultChild(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyMethodDefaultChild")
	}
	def MyMethodPublicChild(): Unit = //note: no 'public' modifier
	{
		println("MyMethodPublicChild")
	}
	private def MyMethodPrivateChild(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyMethodPrivateChild")
	}
	protected def MyMethodProtectedChild(): Unit =
	{
		println("MyMethodProtectedChild")
	}
}

MyClass.CallMethods()
println()

MyChildClass.CallMethods()
println()

MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected()
println()

//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault() //error
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic() //error
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtected()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild()
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtectedChild()
println()

var oObj1 = MyClass()
oObj1.MyMethodDefault()
oObj1.MyMethodPublic()
//oObj1.MyMethodPrivate()
//oObj1.MyMethodProtected()
println()

var oObj2 = MyChildClass()
oObj2.MyMethodDefault()
oObj2.MyMethodPublic()
//oObj2.MyMethodPrivate()
//oObj2.MyMethodProtected()
oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild()
oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild()
//oObj2.MyMethodPrivateChild()
//oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild()
println()

println("the end")

==================================================

[SQL (SQLite)]

==================================================

[Swift]

class MyClass
{
	static func MyClassMethodDefault()
	{
		print("MyClassMethodDefault")
	}
	static public func MyClassMethodPublic()
	{
		print("MyClassMethodPublic")
	}
	static private func MyClassMethodPrivate()
	{
		print("MyClassMethodPrivate")
	}
	//static protected func MyClassMethodProtected() //note: protected not available
	//{
	//	print("MyClassMethodProtected")
	//}

	func MyMethodDefault()
	{
		print("MyMethodDefault")
	}
	public func MyMethodPublic()
	{
		print("MyMethodPublic")
	}
	private func MyMethodPrivate()
	{
		print("MyMethodPrivate")
	}
	//protected func MyMethodProtected() //note: protected not available
	//{
	//	print("MyMethodProtected")
	//}

	static public func CallMethods()
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected() //note: skipped
	}
}

class MyChildClass: MyClass
{
	static func MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		print("MyClassMethodDefaultChild")
	}
	static public func MyClassMethodPublicChild()
	{
		print("MyClassMethodPublicChild")
	}
	static private func MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		print("MyClassMethodPrivateChild")
	}
	//static protected func MyClassMethodProtectedChild() //note: protected not available
	//{
	//	print("MyClassMethodProtectedChild")
	//}

	func MyMethodDefaultChild()
	{
		print("MyMethodDefaultChild")
	}
	public func MyMethodPublicChild()
	{
		print("MyMethodPublicChild")
	}
	private func MyMethodPrivateChild()
	{
		print("MyMethodPrivateChild")
	}
	//protected func MyMethodProtectedChild() //note: protected not available
	//{
	//	print("MyMethodProtectedChild")
	//}

	static public func CallMethodsChild() //note: added 'Child' suffix, error if tried to override the static method ('CallMethods') in MyClass
	{
		MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
		MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
		//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected() //note: skipped
	}
}

MyClass.CallMethods()
print()

MyChildClass.CallMethods()
print()

MyClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
//MyClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
//MyClass.MyClassMethodProtected() //note: skipped
print()

MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefault()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublic()
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivate()
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtected() //note: skipped
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodDefaultChild()
MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPublicChild()
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodPrivateChild()
//MyChildClass.MyClassMethodProtectedChild() //note: skipped
print()

var oObj1 = MyClass()
oObj1.MyMethodDefault()
oObj1.MyMethodPublic()
//oObj1.MyMethodPrivate()
//oObj1.MyMethodProtected() //note: skipped
print()

var oObj2 = MyChildClass()
oObj2.MyMethodDefault()
oObj2.MyMethodPublic()
//oObj2.MyMethodPrivate()
//oObj2.MyMethodProtected() //note: skipped
oObj2.MyMethodDefaultChild()
oObj2.MyMethodPublicChild()
//oObj2.MyMethodPrivateChild()
//oObj2.MyMethodProtectedChild() //note: skipped
print()

print("the end")

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The Universal Function Library Project: Details Note: UFL: Universal Function Library, a set of around 100-300 standard functions for all programming languages. UFL notes: Tern ['c ? x : y' is preferable since it's clear/concise/common, else use alternative symbols like Raku ('c ?? x !! y')][a ternary function is a lesser option since it can't do short-circuit Boolean evaluation] recommendation: 'c ? x : y' is extremely clear and concise and very well known, if you create a programming language, you should implement it just like that, and if your programming language for whatever failed to do that (and even if has some alternative syntax ...), choose alternative symbols (e.g. Raku: 'c ?? x !! y') author's note: unlike with 'c ? x : y', where either x or y are not executed, depending on c, for the function 'Tern(c, x, y)', x and y will both be executed) UFL notes: Swap [consider 'Swap(&a, &b)' or 'Swap(a, b)' or a swap statement 'swap a b'][destructuring assignment is unclear when longer variable names are used] author's note: (all of the options aside from 'Swap(&a, &b)' and 'swap a b' are poor) author's note: a function is a fine option, if the language supports functions with ByRef variables: 'Swap(&a, &b)' (or possibly 'Swap(a, b)') author's note: 'swap a b' is a good option for any programming language author's note: 't = a, a = b, b = t', is verbose (e.g. a 3-liner, plus blank lines, plus a comment to say 'swap', plus longer variable names), can easily result in bugs (especially when code is updated and variables are renamed), and it doesn't make the intention clear, a user can't simply search 'swap' to find any swaps in the code author's note: destructuring assignment only looks clear when the variable name ares are unusually short author's note: if all languages implemented 'swap a b' or 'Swap(&a, &b)', this would make it easy to migrate code between programming languages, otherwise simply swapping variables will be a recurring headache author's note: there are huge numbers of views on Stack Overflow etc, on threads re. swapping variables author's note: the only argument against a swap statement/function, is that swapping is relatively uncommon, however, it is relatively verbose, and relatively unsafe author's note: in general, well-known operations should be doable at the level the user thinks of them ('I'm swapping variables a and b', not, 'I'm creating a temporary variable and using it to swap a and b') author's note: in general, well-known operations should be doable in as safe a way as possible, having to name each variable twice, and name a temporary variable twice, and 3 assignments where something may be ordered incorrectly, are chances for more bugs, and reasonably often exactly these bugs do occur author's note: many approaches have the side effect of introducing a temporary variable author's note: oArray.Swap(Key1, Key2) and oMap.Swap(Key1, Key2) are also useful, add a swap statement/function, and then you can easily find variable and object key swaps by searching for 'swap' author's note: a swap statement/function is easier to find, understand and debug than the alternatives author's note: if it can be written badly, it will be written badly, a swap statement/function is very hard to get wrong UFL notes: Sleep [perhaps consider friendly format options e.g. 'm'/'s'] UFL notes: Noop recommendation: the string 'noop' is uncommon, so it is easier to search for than 'nop' and 'pass', which are relatively common substrings of words recommendation: either a noop statement or function is fine recommendation: a noop statement, that can't be overridden, may be useful as it enables the language to be sure it can replace the statement with a noop, no other checks are required recommendation: people use makeshift noops, a built-in noop, makes it easier to find any noops, for later removal recommendation: noops are useful as a line for adding breakpoints recommendation: some versions of noops can be confusing, e.g. '{}', because the programmer must remember not to add a trailing semicolon UFL notes: PrintLn [print string and a newline character] recommendation: a 'PrintLn' that always appends a line break, is more useful than a 'Print' that doesn't, if only one can be picked recommendation: since 'Print' with line break is wanted 99%+ of the time, it is fine for 'Print' to print a line break by default, with an option or separate function to print without a line break UFL notes: TickCount [get the current time in milliseconds (typically centisecond accuracy, or a higher resolution if possible), take the difference of 2 timestamps to get the time elapsed] UFL notes: SetTimer recommendation: it may be worth having 3 options: delay before first occurrence, gap in-between occurrences, number of occurrences UFL notes: Type UFL notes: Error UFL notes: Assert recommendation: it may be worth having variants of this function, e.g. assert that an error would occur if it were run, e.g. instead of 1 param that is a bool, perhaps 2 params (actual value, expected value), perhaps 3 params (function, parameters as an array, expected value)